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How to Teach it. 



Designed as a Text-Book for Common Schools, and 

for the Primary. Ixi rraiedjate. and Grammar 

Departments of Graded Schools 



HENRY L. BOLTWOOD, A.M. 

Master or Princeton Nigh School. 



Chicago: 

. \V. Sh f. n woon . 

*& IS69. 



i LI BRARY O F CONGRE SS. 

i <&+ T E \\\\ 

* 9; 

^UNITED STATES OE AMERICA,^ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



HOW TO TEACH IT; 



DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR COMMON SCHOOLS, AND 

FOR THE PRIMARY, INTERMEDIATE, AND GRAMMAR 

DEPARTMENTS OF GRADED SCHOOLS. 




HENRY U BOLTWOOD, A.M., 

MASTER OF PRINCETON HIGH SCHOOL. 




"7 
f 

Chicago: 
geo. & c. w. sherwood. 



t^ 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S69, 

BY GEO. & C. W. SHERWOOD. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District of Illinois. 



Church, Goodman & Donnelley, Printers and Stereotypers, Chicago. 



PREFACE. 



The principal reason for adding another Grammar to 
the many already in print, is the fact that another is 
needed. In no branch of Common School study does 
the labor expended appear to produce so little in the 
way of results. It has even been discussed in State 
Teachers' Associations, whether the study of Gram- 
mar is productive of any good. And, since the facts 
pertaining to language are certainly worth knowing, the 
fair conclusion is, that the facts can be presented in 
some form better suited to the necessities of teachers 
and pupils than any which has yet been tried. 

This volume presents a method of teaching Grammar 
which has been carefully tested in the school-room. The 
book contains a selection of the facts pertaining to lan- 
guage. In teaching for many years, one learns that 
certain facts are to be retained firmly, certain others to 
be read, or used as illustrations, and others used as han- 
dles by which to grasp and hold other facts. Gramma- 
rians attempting to make their school grammars complete 
treatises upon the study of language, have put so much 
in them that they have bewildered and disgusted the 
pupil. A grammar should be judged by what it leaves 
'>ut as much as by what ]$ contains. 



4 PREFACE. 

Instead of commencing with letters, syllables, and 
words, the pupil, in this book, is made to commence 
with the sentence as the basis of grammatical instruc- 
tion. In other words, the idea is that the child shall 
begin to study language just as he receives and learns it, 
embodied in sentences. It is more important that the 
child should put words together correctly, and under- 
stand them when combined, than that he should be able 
to name properties and attributes by formal names, or 
give formal definitions. Any one who has ever attempted 
to make perfect and concise definitions of grammatical 
terms, must feel that children ought not to be drilled 
upon terms which are beyond their comprehension, while 
the proper use of language is neglected. 

So far as possible, throughout the Introductory Gram- 
mar, the fact has been presented and recpgnized before 
the name is given. "Whenever a new fact is presented, the 
pupil is expected to fix it in memory by repeated writing, 
and by recognizing it in sentences taken from readers 
or other books familiar to him. If these exercises are 
faithfully performed, the ground passed over will be per- 
manently held; otherwise, it will be lost. By repeated 
writing after correct models, habits of accurate composi- 
tion are fixed. 

It is absurd to say that grammar, as generally taught, 
is " the art of speaking and writing the language cor- 
rectly." Long after the habits of speech are indelibly 
fixed, a few months are generally given to the study of 
dry details, imperfectly understood, seldom or never 



applied, and soon forgotten. Such study makes no more 
impression on bad habits of speech that dew does on a 
rock. 

In preparing this book, the necessities of teachers 
have been kept in mind. Many who teach have had 
limited advantages, and can not teach well because they 
have never been well taught themselves. Some have no 
other way of teaching than to follow the text-book, 
question by question. The book is intended to help 
those who are willing to be helped, and to present a 
plan which, even when followed blindly, will do less 
mischief and secure more good than the commom 
methods. Were it likely that none but well-qualified 
teachers would be required to use this book, it would 
have been shortened. But knowing how many will only 
" follow the book," the design has been to make a book 
which County Superintendents, School Directors, or 
Principals of Graded Schools can safely put into the 
hands of young, inexperienced, or imperfectly educated 
teachers, and say, " Follow this book exactly." 

A Primary, Intermediate, and Common School Gram- 
mar is presented in this volume. It is intended to 
include all which is preliminary to the Higli School 
Course of Graded Schools, and all which could properly 
be called Common- School Grammar in non-graded 
schools. The Primary Grammar is designed as a teach- 
er's guide in developing language by object-lessons, and 
is not intended as a text-book for children. The Inter- 
mediate develops a plan for teaching language to pupils 



6 PREFACE. 

who are able to use a simple text-book. The Common 
School Grammar reviews the Intermediate, and develops 
the plan already begun, with additional facts and prin- 
ciples. Less space is given to the sounds of letters, 
because all good Readers and Spellers now in use con- 
tain all that the pupil generally needs. The rules of 
spelling are also referred to the Appendix, not as unim- 
portant, but as coming after the study of Prefixes and 
Suffixes. 

The common terms of school grammars have been 
retained as far as possible, so that pupils trained in this 
book may understand the common nomenclature of 
grammarians. Yet it has been deemed necessary to 
give some names only to condemn and reject them. 
New names have never been used simply to give an 
impression of originality. 

Special attention is invited to the following points in 
the presentation of topics : 

The pupil commences with the sentence. 

Composition precedes analysis. 

The study of language begins with the primary school, 
or just as soon as the child can put ideas and words 
together. 

Attention is also invited to the following topics : 

Gender, Case, Transitive Verbs, Conjugation, use of 

the Verb to be, use of ichat, the distinction of the verbal 

term ending in ing into Gerund, Verbal Adjective, and 

Participle, the rejection of Auxiliary Verbs, of the Pas- 



PREFACE. 7 

sive Yoice, of Mode as a Property of the Verb, and the 
absence of formal Rules of Syntax. 

The study of Synonyms, and the Derivation of Sur- 
names in the Appendix are also commended to attention. 

Many books and authors have been consulted in the 
preparation of this book. Goold-Brown, Fowler, Bing- 
ham, Marsh, Howland, Green, Mulligan, and Richard 
Grant White have been used ; besides a large number of 
other authors. Dr. Samuel Willard has rendered special 
and valuable assistance. 

Though only a single name appears on the title-page, 
the idea of the book was suggested by Jerome Allen, 
A.M., of Monticello, Iowa, who also shared in its prepara- 
tion through the Intermediate part. His other engage- 
ments preventing further co-operation, he is in no way 
responsible for the third or Common School part. 

Princeton, III., June, 1869. 



Primary Grammar. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

It is useless to give young children a text-book on 
grammar, expecting them to profit by its study. They 
must learn to use language by imitation, and by oral 
teaching. The young pupil should first receive from 
the teacher correct and simple forms of speech, and 
then be trained to such forms alone. It is not neces- 
sary that a single technical term be used, nor that the 
instructions given be called lessons in grammar. 

The use of language should be taught in every lesson. 
It should be the daily study of the primary teacher to train 
every child in correct speaking. It is a common mistake 
to suppose that a grammar class is the only place where 
the proper use of words can be taught. A teacher should 
no more permit a pupil to speak incorrectly, than to 
count, or to spell incorrectly. Of course, the teacher's 
own speech should be a model for his pupils. The 
presentation of correct models, however, will not be 
enough. 

Most pupils bring to the school-room bad habits 
acquired at home. These the teacher must break up. 
Nothing but patient effort will secure this result. The 
evil habits of years, strengthened by daily home exam- 
ple, will not yield to one suggestion, nor to ten. 

It is related that the mother of the Wesleys, in answer 
to her husband's impatient remonstrance, " Why will you 
1* 



10 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

teach that dull boy the same thing twenty times over ? " 
quietly replied, "Because, Mr. Wesley, nineteen times 
will not do." The twentieth time fixed the fact forever. 
Had she stopped at nineteen, she might have lost all her 
pains. The little child, whose habits are forming, claims 
more time, more patience, and more thorough teaching 
than the older pupil, who is better qualified to think for 
himself. 

In teaching language, the instructor should follow 
closely the order in which the child acquires words, and 
their uses. Objects are first learned, then their names, 
then their properties and uses. Therefore the names, 
properties, and uses of common things are the best les- 
sons for primary scholars. Examples of simple object- 
lessons are here given, to show how the use of language 
should be taught in connection with other teaching. 



PEIMAEY LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 



LESSON I. 

NAMES OP THINGS. 

Let the teacher, standing at the board, ask the pupils 
to name all the objects which they see in the school- 
room. These names, written or printed on the board, 
or on the slate, furnish the very best of spelling-lessons. 
The proper form and size of letters, and the neat arrange- 
ment of words, must be attended to by the teacher. In 
collecting and writing these names, the children are pro- 
fitably employed, their powers of observation are stimu- 
lated, and great emulation can be excited by commend- 
ing those who make the longest lists, and show the best 
work. Few in our schools will be likely to name all 
the objects in the room; at least, to name all their parts. 
To name correctly all the parts of a pocket-knife, of a 
door, or of a window, is beyond the attainment of 
most pupils. Names should never be given by the 
teacher, until the pupils have really labored to obtain 
them for themselves. 

To illustrate this exercise, a list is given of the names 
which may be derived from a common pocket-knife 
handle, blade, edge, point, 

back, notch, shank, rivet, 

spring, cap, plate, iron, 

steel, wood, brass, 

The names, when obtained, should be often repeated, 
and made familiar by pointing out the object, while 



12 English grammar. 

giving its name. Thus, taking the knife in hand, the 
pupil should say : " This is a knife." " This is the 
point of the knife ;" and so through the list. Do not 
be satisfied till the pupils can go through all the names 
for themselves, fluently and correctly. 

Always require the names to be written. Look closely 
to the neatness of every exercise, and to the spelling of 
every word. Require daily exercises at the blackboard,* 
and train the class to notice, and to correct mistakes. 

Similar lessons, designed principally to develop the 
perceptive faculties, should be given on the following 
subjects : 

Names of things which grow. 

Names of things which we eat. 

Names of things made of iron. 

Names of things made of wood. 

Names of things made of leather. 

Names of things made of ivory. 

Names of things used in a house. 

Names of materials used in making a house. 

Names of things found in a store. 

Names of birds. 

Names of four-footed animals. 

First names of all the boys in the school. 

First names of all the girls in the school. 

Last names of all the scholars in the school. 

Names of carpenters' tools. 

Names of farming tools and machines. 

Names of flowers. 

Names of trees. 

* If the teacher have no blackboard, and the school authorities 
will not furnish one, common green curtain paper, pasted on the 
wall, will make an excellent substitute, which will bear the 
crayon for several weeks. 



PRIMARY COURSE. 13 

Name the parts of the following things: 



tree, 


body, 


door, 


reaper. 


room, 


house, 


window, 


ship, 


chair, 


watch, 


book, 


clock, 


hand, 


bird, 


head, 


stove, 


house, 


wagon, 


year, 


table. 



The teacher should add to this list names of things 
not mentioned above, with which the pupils are familiar. 

LESSON II. 

ACTIONS OF THINGS. 

The child's attention is first attracted to living ob- 
jects. Next to the perception of the thing comes the 
perception of that which the thing does. Taking the 
names of familiar animals and things, the teacher asks 
what each does. To the question, " What does the dog 
do ? " the children may answer, " The dog rum, barks, 
bites, growls, ju?nps, plays, hunts, etc. All answers 
should be written in full. Thus: The dog runs. Insist 
that every sentence should begin with a capital letter 
and end with a period. 

In like manner let the teacher inquire about the 
bird, mouse, squirrel, horse, 

cat, boy, nen » sheep. 

Or, of things without life ; let the teacher ask, What 
does the sun do ? etc. 

sun, rain, fire, wind, 

saw, g an 5 pi n > knife. 

Let the pupils be urged and encouraged to give as 

many actions as possible. Then let them group actions 

which are related to each other. Thus: The horse 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

walks, trots, paces, canters, gallops. Let the pupils tell 
the difference between these actions. 

Naming the common animals, let the pupils tell what 
sound each makes ; thus : The horse neighs ; the dog 
howls ; the cat mews ; etc. 

Name the different trades and occupations of men, 
and tell what each does. 

Thus: the farmer plows; the merchant trades; the 
blacksmith hammers; the carpenter saws. 

Tell what things 

run, eat, sleep jump, 

grow, work, P^ a y» swim. 

Such exercises as these may be almost indefinitely 
extended and varied. There is little danger of spend- 
ing too much time on this drill. The teacher's skill is 
exhibited in making the pupils think for themselves. 
Neither interest nor profit is secured when the pupils 
are taught to repeat, like parrots, words which they do 
not comprehend. 

LESSON III. 

PROPERTIES OF THINGS. 

Let the teacher show the pupils some familiar object, 
as an apple, a rose, a crayon, a pencil, asking them to 
look at it carefully. Then, removing it from sight, ask 
the class to tell something about it, thus : 

The apple is large, round, red, nice. The pencil is 
long, round, black, hard, smooth. 

Take in the same way the following: 

knife, coin, slate, book, 

rubber ruler, glass, water. 



PRIMARY COURSE. 15 

First write the name of the object at the head of a 
column, and under the name its properties. Then let 
sentences be written after the following models : 
t The apple is large. 

1. •< The pencil is black. 

( The rose is pretty. 4, 

( The teacher had a red apple. 

2. < The teacher had a large book. 

( The teacher had a white crayon. 

( The long ruler is black. 

3. •< The clear glass is brittle. 
( The soft rubber is square. 

( The red apple is round and ripe. 

4. < The black pencil is long and smooth. 
( The white rose is soft and pretty. 

Let many sentences be composed and written after 
these models, until the obvious properties of common 
things are very familiar, and are thoroughly understood. 

Require the names that denote color ; as, red, blue. 

Require the names that denote shape; as, square, 
round. 

Require the names that denote size; as, little, large. 

Let every word be used by the pupil in a sentence. 
If you ask, " Of what color is the rose ? " do not accept 
red as an answer, but require the sentence, The rose is 
red. If you ask the shape of an apple, do not accept 
round as an answer, but require the sentence, The apple 
is round. Insist on this in every school exercise. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IV. 
USES OF THINGS. 

Taking some familiar thing, as a pencil, the teacher 
asks its uses. The various answers given, to mark, to 
write with, to make letters, etc., may be made into sen- 
tences after the following models : 

1. The pencil is used for writing. 

2. The pencil is used to mark with. 

3. The pencil is useful for marking. 

Inquire the uses of the following things : 

ink, paper, wood coal, 

water, knife, cloth, leather, 

fire, light, book, spade. 

Let each answer be a complete sentence. 

Require the names of things good to eat. 
Require the names of things useful to wear. 
Require the names of things used in building. 
Require the names of things useful in the house. 
Require the names of things useful in the school. 
Require the names of things useful to the farmer. 

Make a sentence with each of these names, thus : 
Wheat is good to eat. 
Cloth is useful to wear. 
Mortar is used in building. 

This exercise can, and should be, much extended. 



PRIMARY COURSE. 17 

LESSON V. 

OBJECTS AND QUALITIES OF ACTIONS. 

After learning the name of the action, the child soon 
learns what limits the action, and how, when, where and 
why the action is performed. The words which he uses 
to express these facts may be developed by question and 
answer, thus : 

The bird sings a song. 

"What does the bird sing ? The bird sings a song. 

Sow does the bird sing ? The bird sings sweetly. 

When does the bird sing? The bird sings in the 
morning. 

Where does the bird sing? The bird sings in the 
meadow. 

Why does the bird sing ? The bird sings because it 
is happy. 

In the same manner develop the following : 

The man eats ; the cooper makes ; the 

merchant sells ; Mr. Brown buys . 

(Teach the pupils the difference between whom, and 
what). 

Write under the word icorJcs words that show hoio 
work is done. 

Write words that show when any thing is done. 

Write words that show where any thing is done. 

Write words that show why any thing is done. 

Write words that show with what any thing is done. 

Put each of these words into some sentence. 

Put into one sentence words that show when and 
where, thus, He works in his shop in the morning. 

Put into one sentence words that show hoic and ichy; 
thus, The bird flics swiftly because it is frightened. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An exercise similar to the following should often be 
required of all the pupils : 

ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE. 

What is the name of this? It is a gun. * 

What is it made of? It is made of wood and iron, 
sometimes, in part, of brass and silver. 

Name its parts ? Its parts are the stock, lock, barrel, 
ramrod, hammer, tube, sight, muzzle, breech, butt, etc. 

What is its color ? It is brown. 

What is its surface and shape ? It is smooth, long, 
and slender, and the barrel is hollow. 

What is it used for? It is used to shoot game, to 
fire at a mark, and to kill men with in war. 

After such an exercise, the pupil should be required 
to describe the thing in his own words, without any sug- 
gestions from the teacher. A child might thus describe 
a pencil : 

This is called a lead-pencil. It is made of wood and 
black-lead. Its parts are, the head, the wood, the lead, 
the tip and the poi it. Its color is black. Its surface is 
smooth. Its shape is round, long and slender. It is 
used for marking on paper. 

The above exercise is particularly valuable. The 
power of telling connectedly what one knows is most 
desirable. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES AND SUGGESTIONS. 

After every lesson, require the pupils to give its sub- 
stance in their own words. Question minutely on every 
part, and see that every word is understood, and its 
spelling learned. To vary the exercise, read a simple 
story to your class, and require them to repeat it in 



PRIMARY COURSE. 19 

their own words. Then require it to be written by each 
pupil, and to be read aloud. This exercise invariably 
interests, it calls out the power of expression, it imparts 
self-confidence, disciplines the memory, leads the pupils 
to notice one another's omissions and mistakes, and 
gives the teacher opportunity to make efficient cor- 
rections. 

The habitual vulgarisms of speech must not be tole- 
rated. If an incorrect expression is used, ask the class 
if it be right, and let them, if possible, correct them- 
selves. If they fail to do it, the teacher must give the 
correct form. The common errors of speech may be 
entirely banished from the school by patient effort. 
Good-humored ridicule is often successful in overcoming 
such evil habits. 

The above are given as hints in regard to the manner 
of taking up the study of language along with other 
things. The teacher's success will depend upon her 
own interest and patience. Frequent reviews are abso- 
lutely necessary. The more frequent the review, the 
more rapid the progress. Such lessons as the above 
should be given for years before the pupil looks into a, 
text-book on grammar. Correct habits of thinking and 
composing may be acquired unconsciously, and without 
formal study. Writing of sentences must be insisted on. 
Punctuation and use of capitals are best taught to young 
children by making them observe the sentences found 
in their books. It is a profitable exercise to require 
exact copies of given sentences, or paragraphs. 

The correct meaning of words is also best taught by 
the plan here given. Such common expressions as awful 
nice, dreadful pretty, monstrous small, live and thrive, 
because no one takes pains to teach the child what these 
large adjectives mean. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Many expedients for enlarging the child's stock of 
words, and for teaching their correct use, will readily 
suggest themselves to the teacher who desires to wake 
up mind, and who dares to drop text-books, and to talk 
to children of things which interest them, and are under- 
stood by them. A leaf, a flower, a bird, may be a better 
text-book for the child than a speller or reader can 
possibly be. 

The well-conducted study of the uses and meanings 
of words is never dry, nor distasteful. If pupils find it 
so, teachers will find that the reason lies in themselves. 



Intermediate Grammar. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The title Intermediate is given to this part, because 
the instruction here indicated should follow a thorough 
drill upon the plan laid down in the Primary Course, and 
precede the Common-School Course. Having attained to 
a tolerable readiness in combining words into sentences, 
the pupil is now required to separate into parts, name 
parts, notice relations, and divide words into classes. 
If pupils have not had the preliminary drill required, the 
teacher should proceed slowly, giving prominence to the 
composition of simple sentences, until the pupil forms 
them with ease and accuracy. 

It is impossible to say at what age this course should 
be commenced. The average pupil of ten years of age 
can easily learn any thing given here. And, certainly, 
pupils at that age should give as much time to the 
acquisition of their own language as to any study of the 
common school. 

This part contains the common forms and simple con- 
structions of the language. The analysis of the simple 
sentence is given, without any attempt to enlarge upon 
irregular, anomalous, or intricate constructions. The 
technical terms of grammar are used as little as possible. 
The principle of inflection is just mentioned, that the 
pupil may be led on to notice for himself how and why 
words are changed in form. Case is not developed, 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

except by noticing the Possessive. Rules of Syntax are 
not laid down, because they are not needed by the child. 
The definitions given are not presented as complete, and 
beyond criticism, but as such as a child can comprehend 
and use. 

Practical Grammar deals only with the sentence, and 
the use of a word in a sentence is the only means of 
classifying it. The common order of topics in gram- 
mar reverses the order of nature. The child naturally 
begins with words in groups, or sentences, then gives 
attention to single words, and learns the elements of 
words last. One who knows nothing of the parts of 
speech, or of the rules of Syntax, may yet use words 
accurately. There is nothing in a word which infallibly 
indicates its part of speech. This must be determined 
by its use in a sentence. 

Words and things are so frequently confounded that 
special pains must be taken to make their distinction 
plain. Instead of teaching the pupil to say " John is a 
noun," teach him to say " The word John," recognizing 
that the word is only the sign of the thing. This may 
seem trivial, but it is important. 

Let pupils, on commencing this part of grammar, write 
every sentence required, understand and spell correctly 
every word employed, fix every definition and principle, 
and review frequently. Teachers will observe that this 
plan requires the pupils to preserve their written work. 
In no other way can the reviews, which are absolutely 
necessary, be secured. Each pupil should have a blank 
book, containing at least a quire of letter paper, and the 
teacher should take great care that the books be written 
neatly and kept clean. 

Although the book is divided into lessons, the teacher 
must not let this division affect the assigning of class 



INTERMEDIATE COUKSE. 23 

work. A single paragraph may contain a week's work. 
The teacher can best judge of the proper rate of 
progress. 

Teachers will do their pupils a lasting service, and 
much to help them on in their study of language, by 
inducing them to obtain, and by teaching them to use, 
the best dictionary within their means. No one can 
expect to become very accurate in the use of words 
without daily study of the dictionary. 

LESSON I. 

THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

§ 1. Fire "burns. 

What is said of fire? What does fire do? What 
burns ? About what are we talking ? 

That of which something is said is called a 
Subject. 

We have said something about fire; and, therefore, 
fire is a subject. 

John reads. 

Of whom is something said? What is the subject? 
What is said of the subject? 

Tliat which is said of the subject is called t/ie 
Predicate. 

The subject, with that which is said of the sub- 
ject, is called a Sentence. 

§ 2. We tell others our thoughts by Words. 

A thought put into words becomes a sen- 
tence. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The words which we use are called our lan- 
guage, They are signs of ideas. If one says to 
you, " I have a horse in my barn" the words 
horse and bam make you think of some horse 
and some barn, even if you do not see them, and 
you make a sort of picture of them in your 
mind. The words make you think of this pic- 
ture. 

Let the teacher illustrate by talking of something which the 
pupils have never seen ; as, for example, a palm-tree, and having 
described it carefully, ask them to think exactly how it looks, 
urging them to form a definite mental picture. Then explain to 
them that the word palm-tree makes them think, not of the real 
tree, but of their idea or picture of the tree. 

The wind blows. 

Is this a sentence? Why? What is its subject? 
What is its predicate ? 

Write ten short sentences. Name the subject of each. 
Name the predicates. Tell why each is a sentence. 

§ 3. Studies boy good the well. 

Do these words make sense ? Would you know what 
the person was thinking about who used words like 
these ? Put the words together so that they will make 
a sentence. What is the subject of the sentence which 
you have made ? 

My runs horse. 

Torn your is book. 

Scholars lessons their study should. 

Colt sorrel the running was. 

Praised good are boys. 

Finished large is house the. 

Squirrel trees little the climbs. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 25 

Make the above groups of words into sentences. 
Point out the subjects of the sentences which you have 
made. Point out the predicates. 

Pupils should not be taught at first that either subject or predi- 
cate is limited to a single word. The whole subject and the whole 
predicate are recognized first. Let the children say of the first of 
the above sentences, "The subject is The good boy ; the predicate 
is Studies well." 

Why do not the words given above make sense as 
they are printed ? What did you do to make them 
express sense? Notice, then, that the order of words 
has much to do with their meaning. 

Which comes first in the sentence, the subject or the 
predicate ? 

§ 4. Point out the subjects and predicates of 
the following sentences : 

The girl was in the garden. 

My horse was trotting. 

The boys are playing base-ball. 

General Grant was chosen President. 

Good scholars will be obedient. 

Chicago is a beautiful city. 

Helen's book is in her hand. 

The beautiful house was burned down. 

§ 5. The subject and the predicate are called 
the Elements of the sentence. 

Pointing out the elements of the sentence is 
called Analysis. 

Analyze the sentences given above after the 
following model : 

That large tree was blown down. 

2 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These words are something said about a subject, and 
are, therefore, a sentence. That large tree is that of 
which something is said, and is, therefore, the subject. 
Was blown down is that which is said of the subject, 
and, therefore, was blown down is the predicate. 

Notice that the subject and predicate are often 
made up of several words. 

Copy from your Reader ten short sentences. Notice 
that each sentence begins with a capital letter. Notice 
also the mark at the end of each sentence. Analyze 
these sentences. 



LESSON II. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 

§ 6. Words are divided into different classes, 
as the pupils in a school are divided into classes. 
Scholars are classified by their studies. Words 
are classified by their use. The classes of words 
are called Parts of Speech. There are eight 
of these classes : 

( 1. Substantives, or JVouns. 
-< 2. Verbs. 
[ 3. Pronouns. 
( 4. Adjectives. 
< 5. Adverbs. 
I 6. Prepositions. 

7. Conjunctions. 

8. Exclamations. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 27 

§7. Any word, or group of words, used as 
the subject of a sentence, is called a Substan- 
tive. 

Names of objects are called Nouns, and all 
nouns are substantives. 

Any word, or group of words, may be a sub- 
stantive, thus : 

A is a letter. 

This book is the subject of the sentence. 

Point out the nonns, or name-words in the sentences, 
which you have written, thus : 

Dog is the name of something ; therefore, the word 
dog is a noun. 

Point out ten nouns in your geography. Tell why 
each is a noun. 

Write ten sentences, each containing two nouns. 
Analyze each sentence. 

§ 8. Words which are used to assert something 
of a subject are called Verbs. 

Assert means nearly the same as say or 
tell. The predicate of a sentence always contains 
a verb. Verbs generally express action. The 
Chinese call verbs live words, and nouns dead 
words. Until a verb is put into a group of 
words, they do not assert any thing. Scholars 
— lessons, tells you nothing about scholars, or 
lessons, but if you put the verb study between, 
you tell something, or assert something of schol- 
ars. 



•28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Call attention frequently to the fact that the verb is not always 
a single word, but often two or more ; as, was trotting, have been 



Name the verbs which you have already written, and 
tell why each is a verb, thus : 

Burns asserts or tells something about fire, and, there- 
fore, burns is a verb. 

Point out the verbs in your reading-lesson, and tell 
ichy they are verbs. 

Write predicates after the following subjects, telling 
what each subject does ; thus: 

What does the horse do ? The horse draws a wagon. 

subjects : 

the cat, the doctor, the cooper, the sun, 

the rabbit, the barber, the blacksmith, the wind, 
the squirrel, the farmer, the tailor, the rain. 

Of what part of speech is the asserting word in the 
predicate ? Analyze your sentences. 

Write ten sentences, with subjects of your own selec- 
tion. 

Dark was the night. 

Beautiful was the morning. 

Where is the book ? 

Sometimes, as in the above sentences, the 
subject comes before the predicate. The sen- 
tence is then said to be inverted. 

If the pupils have any difficulty in finding the subject in an 
inverted sentence, it may be developed by a question. Thus, in 
the above sentence, Dark was tlie night, ask what was dark, and 
so in other sentences. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

How sad was the story ! 

Great was the joy. 

Fiercely raged the battle. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 29 

"Write sentences with the following nouns as subjects : 
soldiers, ice, eagles, books, 

spring, marbles, mouse, knowledge. 

Write sentences containing the following predicates : 
are running, is good, rolls, jumps, plants, 
is coming, are useful, falls, swings, flashes. 

Analyze the sentences. 

LESSON III. 

MODIFIERS OR LIMITING WORDS. 

§ 9. Words which in any tvay change, explain, 
or complete the meaning of other words, are said 
to modify or limit the other words. 

Mr. Reed bought a house. 

Mr. Reed, the carpenter, bought the house. 

In the second sentence, the words Mr. Reed are modi- 
fied by the words the carpenter, which explain ichich Mr. 
Reed is meant. Bought is modified by the word house 
which completes the meaning, telling what Mr. Reed 
bought. 

Sometimes a whole sentence is modified. 
He has learned his lesson. 
He has not learned his lesson. 
The word not changes the meaning of the whole sen- 
tence, or modifies the sentence. 

Modify means to vary, or to change; limit 
means to shut up, or to confine. When one says, 
" Boys study" the assertion is made of all boys, 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and is said to be unlimited. But if one says, 
" Grood boys study," the assertion is made only 
of good boys, and is limited. 

§ 10. Nouns are most frequently limited by a 
class of words called 

ADJECTIVES. 

That large white house is for sale. 

Analyze. Point out the noun in the subject. Souse 
is modified by the words large and white> which limit its 
meaning by naming something by which the house can 
be known from other houses. They are said to name 
its properties or qualities. That limits house by pointing 
out which one is meant. 

This book is mine. 
Yonder tree is tall. 

This limits book by pointing out which one is meant. 
Yonder limits tree in the same way. 

Five rebels were captured. 

Five modifies rebels by limiting our thoughts to an 
exact number. 

A few men assembled. 

Few does not limit our thoughts to an exact number, 
but to a small number. 

§ 11. An Adjective is a word which modifies 
a substantive by naming some quality or prop- 
erty, or by pointing out which, or how many are 
meant. 



INTERMEDIATE COUESE. 31 

An adjective may be used as a part of a 
predicate, but can never be a subject. 

An adjective can generally be known by its 
making good sense when placed directly before 
the noun. 

§13. The same word may be sometimes of 
one class, and sometimes of another. The use of 
a word in the sentence is the only fact by which 
we tell its part of speech. 

The diver cord is loosed. 

The spoon is made of silver. 

Jewelers silver their work. 

In the first sentence, silver modifies cord by naming a 
property, and is an adjective. In the second, it is a 
noun, naming a metal. In the third, it asserts some- 
thing, and is a verb. 

The sailors man the boat. 
That man bought my skates. 
He sent his man-servant. 

Of what part of speech is man in each of the above 
sentences? 

In the following sentences, tell to what part 
of speech the words in italics belong. 

The saw is broken. We saw wood. 

Chalk is useful. We chalk the line. 

The fish swims. Anglers fish. 

Girls wear rings. The sexton rings the bell. 

Write ten sentences, using some word as a noun in 
one sentence, and as a verb in the next. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IV. 

NAMES OF QUALITIES OR PROPERTIES. 

§ 13. Chalk is soft, white, brittle, useful. 

Soft, white, brittle, and useful are words which name 
properties, or qualities of the chalk. They make sense 
when they stand directly before the noun, and they can 
not be used alone as the subject of a sentence. There- 
fore they are adjectives. 

It is convenient to have names of properties 
which can be used as subjects of sentences. The 
names softness, ivhiteness, brittleness, usefulness, 
are used for the same qualities. These words 
do not make sense when placed directly before 
the noun, and they can be used as the subjects 
of sentences, thus : 

The usefulness of chalk is great. 

Usefulness is a noun. 

A thing is described by naming its properties. Either 
noun names or adjective names may be used. If you 
know that there is in the desk something round, smooth, 
mellow, red, sweet, and ripe, you have a description of it 
from these names of qualities. 

Name all the qualities of 

rubber, ivory, iron, wood, a ball, 

paper, glass, lead, snow, a knife. 

Urge pupils to make the naming of qualities complete as possi- 
ble. A quality may be noticed or suggested for which the pupils 
have no name. They may observe that wood and paper burn, 
while iron and lead do not, but they do not know the word com- 
bustible. Do not give out names hastily. Let the pupils hunt for 
them. Particularly encourage them to go home with questions 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 33 

like these, "What word expresses that wood burns easily?" 
" What word can I put with clialk to express that it breaks 
easily ? " 

WORDS WHICH POINT OUT WHAT OBJECTS ARE 
MEANT. 

§ 14. This book is in my hand. That book 
is on the table. 

What does this show ? What does that show ? Should 
one say, " That book is in ray hand, this book is on the 
table?" What is the difference between this and that? 

A book is useful. 
The book is useful. 

What is the difference between the first and the sec- 
ond sentence? 

The other tree is full of fruit. 
The latter course was taken. 
These desks are too high. 
Analyze these sentences, and point out the modifiers. 

WORDS THAT DENOTE HOW MANY. 

§ 15. Seven days make a week. 
Three feet make a yard. 
Several roads led to the city. 
Many ships were wrecked. 
Three and seven limit the assertion to an exact num- 
ber ; several and many denote number, but are not 
exact. 

§16. There are three classes of adjectives. 
1. Those which name Qualities or Proper- 
ties. These are called Descriptive Adjectives. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Those which point out which or what 
objects are meant. These are called Specify- 
ing Adjectives. 

3. Those which denote how many are meant. 
These are called Numeral Adjectives. 

§17. Sometimes an adjective appears to "be 
the subject of a sentence. When this is the 
case, the noun which the adjective modifies is 
omitted, thus : 

JBoth were mistaken. This means, both per- 
sons were mistaken. 

The wise say. This means, the wise men say. 

A noun is often used as an adjective ; as, stone wall ; 
iron frame. It may then be called an adjective, or a 
noun used as an adjective. 

Analyze the following sentences, and point out the 
nouns, adjectives and verbs in each. Tell to what class 
each adjective belongs. 

The other horse is black. 

That silvery cloud is beautiful. 

Those large red apples are the best. 

These industrious scholars are busy. 

The poor old man is lame. 

Few rich men are happy. 

Several severe battles were fought. 

Twenty brave soldiers were killed. 

Any attentive pupil will learn. 

Every day brings new duties. 
Compose and write ten sentences, each containing a 
Descriptive adjective ; ten, each containing a Specify- 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 35 

ing adjective; and ten, each containing a Numeral 
adjective. 

A word which modifies the subject, can not 
be a part of the predicate, and any word which 
is in the predicate, is not a modifier of the 
subject. 

LESSON V. 

ENTENCES CONTAINING MODIFIERS. 

§ 18. The brave soldiers of the Union fought 
well in the war. 

The principal word in the subject of this sentence is 
soldiers. The principal thing said of them is fought. 
Soldiers is modified by the, a specifying adjective, and 
brave, a descriptive adjective, limiting the subject. 
The words of the Union limit the subject still further. 
It is not said that all soldiers fought well, but only 
that the brave soldiers of the Union fought. Fought is 
modified by bravely, telling how they fought, and by in 
the war, telling when or where they fought. 

My dog ran through the garden. 

Dog is modified by the word my, telling to whom the 
dog belongs, and ran is modified by the words through 
the garden, showing where the dog ran. 

Words are divided into eight classes. 

The subject, words, is not limited, for the assertion is 
made of all words. Are divided is modified by the words 
into eight classes, showing how words are divided. 

The pupil's success in grammar depends largely upon the 
clearness with which he comprehends the effect of modifiers. The 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

principal ideas in a simple sentence are easily understood; the 
difficulties are generally with the modifiers, not so much in per- 
ceiving ichat they are, as in telling ichat they mean. The above 
examples show how the effect of modifiers should be made plain 
to a class. 

Analyze the following sentences, name the modifiers, 
and tell how each modifier changes the meaning, or 
limits the assertion. 

Every man went to his house. 

The first Napoleon was banished to St. Helena. 

Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl. 

These large yellow oranges came from Havana. 

The sailor brought home a parrot for his brother. 

§ 19. A subject without modifiers is called a 
simple subject. A subject with limiting words 
is called a modified subject. The simple sub- 
ject is always a substantive. 

Predicates, like subjects, are simple or modi- 
fied. The simple predicate is always a verb. 

Review the sentences which you have already written, 
point out the modifiers^ and tell what the modifiers ex- 
press. 

Write ten sentences with modified subjects and predi- 
cates. 

Modifiers of nouns are called adjective modi- 
fiers ; modifiers of verbs are called adverbial or 
verbal modifiers. 

CLAUSES. 

§ 20. Sometimes a group of words is used as 
a modifier, which, when used by itself, forms a 
sentence. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 37 

1. Who is here? 

2. Do you know who is here ? 

3. I do not know who is here, 

4. Who is honest ? 

5. The man tvho is honest is respected. 

In the above, the words which form the first 
and fourth sentences are used as modifiers in the 
other sentences. 

§21. A modifier containing a subject and 
predicate, and which, when used alone, can be a 
sentence, is called a Clause. 

Words properly put together, not making a 
sentence or a clause, are called a Phrase. 

In the house, is a phrase. My hook, is a 
phrase. Thomas and William, is a phrase. 
Dawn by the mill-pond, is a phrase. 

Point out the modifiers in the following sentences, 
and tell what they express ? 

The snow falls steadily. 
The rain falls in torrents. 
The cars move swiftly. 
Boys skate on the ice. 
Three children were going to school. 
Analyze each sentence. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON VI. 



§22. He speaks sloivly and indistinctly. 

Martha writes Jieatly and rapidly. 

These words in italics belong to a new ciass. 
Their common name is adverbs, meaning that 
they are added to verbs. They never modify 
substantives. Most of them are formed from 
adjectives by addingly ly to the adjective. 

Besides modifying verbs, adverbs often modify 
adjectives. One adverb may modify another 
adverb, and sometimes, instead of modifying 
any single word, an adverb modifies a whole 
sentence. 

Most adverbs modifying verbs express when, 
where, or how something is done. 

The work was done yesterday. (When). 

My brother lives here. (Where). 

You have learned well. (How). 

§ 23. Adverbs modifying adjectives. 

His house is very large. 

The apple is too sour. 

Our school-room is really beautiful. 

The colonel was over confident. 

This movement was more successful. 

The weather is excessively hot. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 39 

ADVERBS MODIFYING OTHER ADVERBS. 

Henry writes very well. 

The horses ran too fast. 

You should not read so rapidly. 

You ought to study more diligently. 

ADVERBS MODIFYING WHOLE SENTENCES. 

The boy has not learned his lesson. 

Certainly the money was sent. 
Indeed you are mistaken. 

Verily I say unto you. 
Perhaps I shall see him. 

§ 24. Examples for analysis. 

Point out the verbal modifiers in the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each expresses. Point out the 
phrases used. 

The lightning was bright last evening. 

The waves dashed upon the shore. 

The storm rages fiercely. 

He comes every day. 

He remained in Europe three years. 

The wood was cut with an ax. 

The poor man died of hunger. 

Mary sings, because she is happy. 

The hunter killed two bears. 

The teacher likes attentive pupils. 

Verbal modifiers express when, where, why, 
hoiv, how long, whom, what, with what, by w7iat. 

Compose twenty sentences, containing verbal modi- 
fiers of all these kinds, and give the meaning of each 
modifier. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

CLAUSES AS MODIFIERS. 

§ S5. The man whom you saw with me was 
my uncle. 

The boy who dares to speak the truth is re- 
spected. 

He told me what lie had seen. 

Samuel showed me how the example was 
worked. 

Clauses, like other modifiers, may be adjective 
modifiers, or verbal modifiers. 

Adjective clauses usually begin with who, 
whose, whom, winch, or that, and stand directly 
after the substantive which they modify. 

Verbal modifying clauses often begin with 
some word answering the questions, when ? 
%oliere ? how ? or why ? 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

ADJECTIVE MODIFYING CLAUSES. 

The man whom J met was a German. 
I have sold the horse that I used to drive. 
This is the boy whose arm was broken. 
The storm which was raging is over. 
The pupil who is diligent will improve. 

VERBAL MODIFYING CLAUSES. 

Helen said that she would go. 

He went where his country called. 

The oak stands firm when tempests rage. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 41 

Man learns by pain how frail he is. 
Our nation is prosperous, because it is free. 
Write ten sentences containing adjective modifying 
clauses. 

Write ten containing verbal modifying clauses. 

LESSON VII. 

PRONOUNS. 

§ SO. The farmer and the farmer's son sold 
the grain which the farmer and the farmer's 
son had raised. 

Notice that this sentence may be shortened 
into, "The farmer and his son sold the grain 
which they had raised." The sense is not 
changed, but instead of some of the nouns, 
shorter words have been used which are easier 
to speak, and pleasanter to the ear. These 
words are his and they ; Ms standing for the 
farmers, and they standing for the farmer and 
the farmer } s son. 

Mary goes to school, and Mary learns well. 

What word can be put in place of the second word 
Mary without changing the sense ? 

A person who is speaking puts in place of his 
own name the word I. Thus, Joseph would 
not say of himself " Joseph saw," but " /saw." 

When one person speaks to another, he often 
calls him by name first, to get his attention, but 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the sentence which follows, he uses you instead 
of the person's name. The teacher does not say, 
" Charles, Charles must study." But, " Charles, 
you must study." 

§ 27. Words used instead of nouns are called 
Pronouns. 

Instead of the names of those persons who 
are speaking, the pronouns, 7, my, mine, me, ice, 
our, ours, us, are used. 

Instead of the names of persons to whom we 
speak, we use the pronouns, thou, thy, thine, thee, 
ye, you, your, yours. In common speech we use 
only you, your, yours. Thou, thy, thine, and 
thee are used mostly in poetry, and in addressing 
God. 

Instead of the names of those objects of 
which we speak, we use three classes of pro- 
nouns. 

1. In speaking of a single male being, we use 
the pronouns he, his, him. 

2. In speaking of a single female being, we 
use the pronouns, she, her, hers, 

3. In speaking of a single thing, neither male 
nor female, or of a thing whose sex is unimpor- 
tant, we use the pronouns, it, its. 

In speaking of things more than one, we use 
the pronouns, they, tlieir, theirs, them. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 43 

Analyze the following sentences. Name the pronouns, 
and tell whether they stand for the name of the speaker, 
the person spoken to, or something spoken of. 

I have my book and your pencil. 

James has his ball and my bat. 

Your pupils have learned their lessons. 

She has received a present from him. 

I have my book, you have yours, she has hers. 

This is my book. This book is mine. 

I found them in their garden. 

You praise us, because we do our duty. 

He found my knife, and lost it again. 

The bird feeds its young and cares for them. 

The child has cut its finger. 

§ 2$. The name of a speaker, or a pronoun 
standing for his name, is said to be of the first 
person, because the speaker is the first who has 
any thing to do with the sentence, The name 
of a person spoken to, or a pronoun standing 
for his name, is said to be of the second person, 
because the person spoken to, is the next in 
order who has any thing to do with the sentence. 
All other nouns and pronouns are said to be of 
the tliird person. 

That for which a pronoun stands is called its 
Antecedent. 

§29. Pronouns which are used only in one 
person are called Personal pronouns. I, my, 
we, our, us, are used only in place of the name 
of the speaker; you only in place of the name of 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

persons spoken to; they only in place of the 
names of objects spoken of. All the pronouns 
given above axe personal. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 30. The words, who, ivhose, ivhom, which, 
and that, standing at the beginning of adjective 
clauses (§25), are called Relative Pronouns. 

The Antecedent of a relative pronoun is to 
be found in the same sentence, and usually stands 
directly before it. 

Write ten sentences with clauses containing relative 
pronouns. 

Select from your reader ten sentences containing 
relative iironouns. Analyze them, and name the ante- 
cedents of the pronouns. 

The pronouns, my, thy, him, her, your have 
sometimes the word self added to them. The 
pronoun them acids selves, in the same way. 

These pronouns with the word thus added 
are called Compound personal pronouns. 
They are used when the antecedent of the pro- 
noun is the subject of the sentence, and also to 
modify a noun, making it emphatic. 

I have hurt myself. 

James has cut himself. 

Isabella made herself sick. 

Those boys will kill themselves. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 45 

The king himself could do no more. 
I myself am to blame. 
A descriptive adjective standing before a 
noun often means the same as an adjective clause 
which might stand after it. 

The wise man. The man who is wise. 

The shining star. The star which shines 

§ 31. Insert adjective clauses after the subjects 
of the following sentences, thus : 

The train has not arrived. 

The train which was due at eight o'clock has not 
arrived. 

The book is lost. 

My friend has come. 

The farm has been sold. 

The merchant has bought a house. 

Washington is called a patriot. 

Insert adjective clauses in the predicates of the fol- 
lowing sentences, thus : 

Father has sold the farm . 

Father has sold the farm which he bought last fall. 

They are chasing a horse . 

We found a guide . 

I should like to read the book . 

The country honors the man . 

I received two dollars for the wheat . 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§32. Who did it? What did you say? 
Whom did you see? Which way have they 
gone \ 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It has already been noticed that the sentence is some- 
times inverted (§ 8), when the predicate, or part of the 
predicate, comes before the subject. This is usually the 
case in questions. In the sentence " How do you do ? " 
you is the subject, do do how is the predicate. 

Analyze the questions given above. Write and ana- 
lyze ten sentences, each in the form of a question. 

A sentence in which a question is asked is 
called an Interrogative sentence. 

The pronouns ivho, whose, whom, which and 
what, when used in asking questions, are called 
Interrogative pronouns. 

The word for which an interrogative pronoun 
stands is found in the answer of the question, 
thus: 

Who broke the window ? James broke it. 

Who stands for James. 

Write ten sentences containing interrogative pro- 
nouns. Analyze them. 

Select from some one of your books ten sentences 
which contain interrogative pronouns. 

LESSON VIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 33. My dog is the table. 

Charles sits the table. 

The book lies the table. 

Father stood the table. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 47 

Put a word into each of the above sentences 
that will complete the sense. Notice that these 
words show something about the position or 
place of the subject compared with the table. 
Under, at, on, by, show how the table is placed, or 
in what way it is related to each subject. 

There are about forty common words which 
are used to connect substantives with other words, 
and, at the same time, to show how the follow- 
ing substantive is related to some preceding 
word. These words are called Prepositions. 
The name preposition means placed before. The 
following substantive whose relation is expressed, 
is called the subsequent of the preposition. The 
preposition and its subsequent usually make an 
adverbial phrase, answering the question where, 
as, " The book is — where f " The book is on 
the desk. 

§ 34. A LIST OF COMMON PREPOSITIONS. 



about, 


before, 


for, 


through, 


above, 


behind, 


from, 


till, 


across, 


below, 


in, 


to, 


after, 


beneath, 


into, 


toward, 


along, 


beside, 


of, 


under, 


amid, 


between, 


off, 


until, 


among, 


beyond, 


on, 


up, 


around, 


by, 


over, 


with, 


at, 


down, 


since, 


without. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Prepositions are very closely related to adverbs, 
and are used mostly in adverbial phrases. Of 
is the only preposition which is often employed 
in an adjective phrase. 

When the subsequent of the preposition is 
omitted, the preposition may be called an adverb. 

Notice that many of these prepositions have 
exact vppomtes in meaning, and may be arranged 
in pairs, thus : 

before, behind, 

over, under, 

above, below. 

Name other prepositions which have opposites. 

Write sentences containing each of the above preposi- 
tions. (Two or more can be used in the same sentence). 
Analyze ; and tell what relation the preposition aud its 
subsequent show. 

WORDS THAT CONNECT SENTENCES AND WORDS. 

§ 35. In order that words may make sense, 
they must be joined together properly. The 
words, stick, a, ivith, boy, dog, the, struck, do not 
make sense because they are not in proper order 
to express any thing. 

The same words make sense when placed 
thus: 

The boy struck the dog with a stick. 

Generally the sense is shown by the order in 
which words stand. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 49 

Men plant corn. Men hoe corn. 

In these two sentences the subjects are the 
same. The word corn is found in both predi- 
cates. Generally we shorten such sentences by 
joining the verbs of the two predicates by the 
word and, and express the rest but once, thus : 

Men plant and hoe corn. 

The predicate is then called Compound $ 
that is, it is made up of parts. 

The robins are singing. The blue-birds are 
singing. 

Here we have two sentences with the same 
predicate, but the subjects are different. The 
subjects are generally connected by and, and the 
sentence shortened, thus : 

The robins and blue-birds are singing. 

The' subject is then said to be compound. 

Shorten the following sentences in the same way as in 
the examples above : 

The lion is fierce. The lion is strong. 

The soldiers fought. The soldiers conquered. 

Apples are ripe. Peaches are ripe. 

The merchant buys goods. The merchant sells goods. 

§ «*G. Words whose chief use is to connect 
words, sentences, or parts of sentences, are called 
Conjunctions, or hind-words. 

And, font, if, lest, or, nor, though, yet 
and because, are the most common conjunc- 
tions. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write four sentences with compound subjects. Write 
four with compound predicates. 

Write four with both subjects and predicates com- 
pound, thus : 

Charles and William read and spell. 

Sometimes a sentence is joined to another sen- 
tence, or a clause to a sentence, by a conjunction, 
thus : 

The company will come, if it does not rain. 
His courage was never doubted, but his judgment was 
not trustworthy. 

Write two sentences connected by and. 
Write two sentences connected by but. 
Write two sentences connected by or. 
Write two sentences connected by because. 

Sometimes a relative or an interrogative pro- 
noun stands as a connecting word between a sen- 
tence and a clause of the sentence. Sometimes 
an adverb connects a sentence with a clause. 

The general asked what they saw. 
They will hear us when we call. 
Who knows ichy the army failed ? 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

§ 37. Certain words are used to express feel- 
ing which the speaker can not well express by 
sentences. Pshaw! Fudge! Bah! Oh! are 
examples. There are not many of them in the 
language. They form no part of the sentence. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 51 

LESSON IX. 

CHANGES IN THE FORM OF TVORDS. 

§ 38. The farmer binds the sheaf with a band. 

They bound the thief with bonds. 

Notice that all the four words in italics con- 
tain the idea of tying, though they do not mean 
exactly the same. The letters b, n, d, are found 
in each word, and these letters contain the prin- 
cipal meaning. They are called the root of the 
word. The changes in meaning are made by 
changing the other letters of the word. 

When one word is formed from another by 
changing some of its letters, or by adding letters 
to the beginning, or to the end of the word, we 
say that a new word is derived from the first. 

§ 39. Words are derived from other words in 
four ways : 

1. By changing letters ivithin the word; as, 
bind, band, bond, bound. 

2. By placing letters before the word; as, 
bind, im-bind ; use, mis-use, ab-use. 

3. By adding letters to the word; as, care, 
careful, cureless, car (e)i?ig, cares. 

4. By joining one word to another ; as, watch- 
factory. 

These changes modify the meaning of the 
root, but as we have used modifiers to express 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words which modify other words, we call these 
changes which are made in the word, or in its 
ending, changes in form. 

§ 40. When the same changes are made in 
the form of a class of words, to denote the same 
change in meaning, the change is called Inflec- 
tion. 

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and 
a few adverbs are inflected. 

§ 41. Pencil, book, house. 
Pencils, books, houses. 

Notice that under each of the nouns given in 
the first line, there stands another noun derived 
froin it by adding s. Each noun in the upper 
line denotes one thing / the noun derived from 
it in the lower line denotes more than one thing. 

That form of a substantive which denotes one 
thing is called the Singular number. 

That form of" the substantive which denotes 
more than one thing is called the Plural num- 
ber. 

To annex, in speaking of changes in form, 
means to place after. 

To prefix means to place before. 

Most nouns, like those given above, are changed 
from the singular form to the plural form by 
annexing s to the singular 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 53 

When s annexed can not be easily sounded, es 
is added to form the plural, as 
box, glass, match, bush, church, 
boxes, glasses, matches, bushes, churches. 

A few nouns form the plural by changing 
letters loithin the word; as, 
man, men; mouse, mice; foot, feet; tooth, teeth. 

Can you give any other words of either of these 
classes ? 

CHANGE OF SEX. 

§ 42. A few nouns change their endings to 
show whether the persons named by them are 
male, or female. 

Actor, actress; count, countess; hero, heroine; 
widower, widow; Francis, Frances. 

POSSESSION. 

§43. This is the nest of an eagle. 

The house of my father is large. 

How can these sentences be shortened I What 
does the phrase of my father show? 

Which sounds the better, " This is the ring 
of my mother," or u This is my mother's ring V 
Do the sentences differ in meaning ? 

The phrase of my mother shows to whom the 
ring belongs; or who possesses or owns the ring. 
The same relation is expressed in the shorter 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence by changing the ending of the noun 
mother, and by bringing the noun into another 
place in the sentence. 

When the preposition of, and its subsequent 
modify a noun, the same relation is sometimes 
expressed by changing the ending of the subse- 
quent noun, and placing it before the noun 
modified. 

Change the phrase's in italics to shorter forms : 

The flash of the lightning was bright. 

The poems of Milton are admired. 

The flight of the sioallow is rapid. 

Of and its subsequent frequently express ^>os- 
session, and nouns whose ending is changed to 
express this relation are called Possessives. 

§ 44. Nouns in the singular express the rela- 
tion of possession by adding s, preceded by an 
apostrophe. The apostrophe shows the omission 
of i which was once written in the ending. 

Mary's, teacher's, pupil's, bird's. 

Nouns in the plural, ending in s, add the 
apostrophe to make the possessive form. 

Turkeys', eagles', soldiers', babies'. 

Write sentences containing the plurals of the follow- 
ing nouns : 

monkey, hero, king, queen, fox. 

Write sentences containing the jiossessive singular of 
the following nouns : 

servant, soldier, officer, teacher, doctor. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 55 

Find ten sentences in your reader containing nouns 
in the possessive. 

§ 45. Nouns, then, change their form to de- 
note three relations. 

1. The relation of number. 

2. The relation of sex. 

3. The relation of possession. 

The change of the form of the noun which 
denotes number and possession is called Declen- 
sion. 

LESSON X. 

CONJUGATION. 

§46. I write to-day. I wrote yesterday. I 
shall write to-morrow. John ivrites. The letter 
is toritten. Father was writing. 

In these six sentences the same action is 
spoken of; the action of writing. The letters 
w-r-t are the root of the verb, and contain the 
principal meaning. 

The verb is varied in the following ways : 

By changing letters within the word; as, 
wrote, wrote. 

By annexing letters ; as, write, writes, writ(e)- 
ing. 

By prefixing other words, which, although not 
joined to it, are called a part of the predicate 
verb f ' as, write, shall write, may write. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write sentences containing some variation of each of 
the following verbs : 

give, throw, know, see, hear, feel. 

§ 4:7. Some of these changes show the time 
of the action ; some show whether the action is 
finished or unfinished 5 some show the per- 
son of the subject (§ 28) ; some show whether 
the subject is the doer of the action ; some show 
whether the subject is singular or plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

Soldiers fight. Soldiers fought. 

The change in the form shows a change in time. 

I am writing a letter. I have written a let- 
ter. 

The action in the first sentence is unfinished, in the 
second, finished. 

Thou God seest me. 

God sees all things. 

The change in ending shows that the person of the 
subject is changed. In the first sentence God is spoken 
to , in the second He is spoken of. 

The man plows the field. 

The field is plowed. 

In the first sentence the subject does the action which 
is affirmed ; in the second, the same action is affirmed, 
but the subject is not the doer, and the sentence does 
not tell who did it. 

The man is here. The men are here. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 57 

The change of is to are shows a change in the number 
of the subject. 

§ 48. Time may be Present, Past or Fa- 
tare. 

Actions may be spoken of as finished or un- 
finished, in either present, past or future time. 
Present unfinished, I am writing a letter. 
Present finished, He has written a letter. 
Past unfinished, We were 'writing a letter. 

T> f £ * \, A i They had written a letter. 
Jr asD nnisneu, \ ^T\^ , i , , 

' ( lhey wrote a letter. 

Future unfinished, I shall write. 

Future finished, She will have written. 

Analyze the following sentences. Tell the number of 

each subject. Tell the time of each verb. Tell whether 

the action is finished, or unfinished. Tell whether the 

subject is the doer of the action. Change the verb in 

each sentence so as to express a different time ; as, 

The river rose. The river is rising. 

The wheat has been harvested. 

The laws had been broken. 

The book will be printed. 

My friends were traveling. 

The deed will have been done. 

The ship is coming into the harbor. 

Do the same with the sentences in § 18. 

§ 49. The changes which are made in the 
forms of verbs to express these different facts in 
regard to the action are called Conjugation. 

The forms by which we know the time of the 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

action, and whether it is finished or unfinished, 
are called Tense-forms. Tense comes from a 
word meaning time. When a verb has the form 
which denotes present time, it is said to be in 
the present tense; when its form denotes past 
time, it is in the past tense. 

The forms which show that the subject is the 
doer of the action are called the forms of the 
Active Voice. If these forms are not used, 
the verb is said to be in the Passive Voice. 

§ 50. I read, he reads. You go, she goes. 
The endings s and es show that the subject is 
of the third person and singular number. 

Write five sentences, in which there is mentioned 
some unfinished action; as, 

The boys were skating. 

Write five sentences in which the verbs express 
finished action ; as, 

The time has come. 

Write five sentences with a verb in the present tense / 
as, 

Mother is mending my kite. 

Write five sentences with the verb in past time, either 
finished, or unfinished ; as, 

I sold my knife. She was singing a hymn. 

Write five sentences with the verb in future time, 
either finished, or u?ifinished ; as, 

The boy will fall. The mail will have been opened. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 69 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

§ 51. Verbs have adjective forms, or forms 
which are used to modify nouns. These forms 
are commonly called Participles, or Verbal 

Adjectives. There are two of these verbal 
adjectives for each verb. One always ends in 
ing, the other ends in d, or n ; as, seeing, seen. 

This laboring man earns his wages. 

He was laboring with great earnestness. 

In the first sentence laboring asserts nothing, and is a 
verbal adjective. In the second sentence it may still be 
called an adjective, but as it is a part of the predicate, 
it is asserted of the subject, does not modify the subject 
(§ 17), and is generally called a part of the verb. 

§ 5&. The verbal adjective in ing is called 
the Imperfect (or unfinished) Participle ; 

the other endings belong to the Perfect (or 
finished) Participle. 

The principal difference between the verbal 
adjective and other adjectives is, that the verbal 
adjective may have all the modifiers of the verb. 

The participle having joined with the perfect 
participle of a verb, makes what is called a 
Compound participle. 

A Clause (§ 20) is sometimes shortened by 
leaving out the subject, and by using the parti- 
ciple instead of some form of the verb which 
expresses assertion. The participle is then said 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to reffer to the word which would be the sub- 
ject of the sentence, if nothing was omitted. 

When I had finished my lesson, I had an hour 
left for reading. 

Having finished my lesson, I had an hour 
left for reading. 

The compound verbal adjective (or participle) having 
finished refers to the subject I. The ending ing in 
having shows that it is the imperfect participle ; the end- 
ing ed in finished shows that it is the perfect participle. 
Having finished is modified by my lesson, showing what 
is finished, answering the question what. Sour is modi- 
fied by left, a verbal adjective, derived from the verb 
leave. 

§ 53. This verbal adjective form in ing is 
also used as a noun, while it still retains the 
modifiers of the verb. 

Writing rapidly is very tiresome. 

In this sentence writing is a noun, because it is the 
subject of the sentence. But it is modified by the ad- 
verb rapidly. Therefore, it differs from other nouns, 
because it admits a verbal modifier. 

Taking his gun, the farmer went out. 

'The finished garment lay beside her. 

Hunting tigers is dangerous sport. 

A ne&tly-icritten letter indicates a careful scholar. 

Saving read the letter, he put it in his pocket. 

The battle, hotly contested for three hours, was at last 
won by the rebels. 

Point out the participles in the above sentences. Tell 
whether they denote finished or unfinished action. Put 
clauses in place of the participles and their modifiers. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 61 

THE INFINITIVE. 

§ 54. Verbs have another substantive form 
besides that in ing. This form is usually pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, and is called the 
Infinitive of the verb. 

She tried to sing the song. 

To sing well is a valuable accomplishment. 

To icrite neatly requires pains. 

We have learned to spell correctly. 

The substantive form, or verbal noun, differs from 
other nouns in having adverbial modifiers. The to be- 
fore the verb is sometimes omitted. 

Verbs are conjugated to express Tense, 
Voice, Person and Number. 

LESSON XL 

COMPARISON. 

§ 55. Some descriptive Adjectives, and a 

few Adverbs, admit a change of form called 
Comparison. 

When an adjective simply names a quality, it 
is said to be in the Positive degree ; as, wise, 
brave, hind. 

But when, besides naming the quality, one 
person or thing is compared with another by 
the adjective, the adjective is said to be in the 
Comparative degree. The comparative form 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

annexes r or er to the positive form ; as, wiser, 
braver, kinder. 

When, besides naming a quality, the adjective 
compares any person or thing with more than 
one other, the adjective is said to be in the 
Superlative degree. The superlative form 
annexes st or est to the positive form ; as, 
wisest, bravest, kindest. 

This is a large boy. 

This boy is larger than his older brother. 

Thomas is the largest boy in school. 

Never use the ending est with an adjective when 
comparing two. Do not say, He is the oldest of the 
two. You might as well say, He is oldest than his 
brother. 

Descriptive adjectives of one syllable, and a 
few of more than one syllable, admit the inflec- 
tion of comparison. 

Dear, dearer, dearest. 
Tall, taller, tallest. 
Lovely, lovelier, loveliest. 
Compare small, wise, old, near, fine, sweet. 

DIMINUTIVES. 

§ 56. From nouns are sometimes formed 
nouns which denote a small thing of the same 
kind. Such nouns are called Diminutives. 
The word from which another word is formed is 
called a Primitive word. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. (33 

From stream we form streamlet; meaning little stream. 

From river we form rivulet/ meaning a little river. 

From goose we form gosling; meaning a little, or 
young goose. 

From lamb we form lambkin; meaning a little lamb. 

From hill we form hillock/ meaning a little hill. 

From cat we form kit; meaning a little cat. 

Form diminutives from the following : 
lance, flower, wave, lake, bull, brook, 
leaf, isle, eye, bird, top, duck. 

ABSTRACT NOUN'S. 

§ 57. In § 13 we have names of qualities used 
as subjects, and names which are used only as 
modifiers of nouns. The substantive names 
of Qualities are called Abstract iioiots. 

They are derived from adjectives by annexing 
ness, ity, th, ce, cy, and a few have other 
endings. Thus, from good we form goodness; 
from hind, kindness / from able we form ability; 
from true, truth; from long, length; from elo- 
quent, eloquence / from fluent, fluency. 

Form abstract nouns from the following : 
wide, strong, deep, high, broad, 

active, agile, acid, plural, docile, 

neat, useful, idle, happy, weary, 

elegant, fluent, eloquent, different, truant. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XII. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. 

§ 58. The king has governed well. My father will 
return. Your plan may not succeed. We should study 
diligently. 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

Can your story be true? Do you intend to remain? 
Why did you not learn this lesson ? What did you say ? 

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

Let seven sentences be written. Go home now, but 
return immediately. Lend me a knife. Do not be rude. 

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

What a beautiful sunset ! How he does talk ! A very 
strange story ! How very ridiculous ! 

§ 59. A Declarative sentence asserts a thing 
as a fact. The thing asserted may not be true, 
but the speaker gives it as a fact. 

An Interrogative sentence contains a ques- 
tion. 

An Imperative sentence expresses the will 
of the speaker, as a command, entreaty, or request. 
The subject of an imperative sentence is gener- 
ally of the second person, and is usually omitted. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. G5 

An Exclamatory sentence expresses strong 
feeling. A sentence of this class is often incom- 
plete. 

§ 00. A Simple sentence contains one sub- 
ject and one predicate. 

A Complex sentence contains a clause (§ 2) 
modifying either the subject, predicate, or whole 
assertion. 

The horse which ran away has been caught. 

This is a complex sentence, because it contains a 
clause modifying the subject. 

We will answer when you call. 

This sentence contains a clause modifying the predi- 
cate, showing the time of answering; and it is, there- 
fore, a complex sentence. 

If you do this, you will be sorry. 

The principal thing asserted here is, "You will be 
sorry." But this is not said as a thing which will cer- 
tainly happen. The clause " W you do this," modifies 
the whole assertion. The sentence is, therefore, com- 
plex. 

Compound sentences are made up of two or 
more simple sentences, connected by conjunc- 
tions 5 or connected by position without any 
connecting word. 

Sarah is writing, and Emily is reading. 

He came, he saw, he conquered. 

He went to Chicago, but he did not stay. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A complex sentence may contain several 
clauses. A sentence may be both complex and 
compound. 

INCOMPLETE SENTENCES. 

§ 61. A sentence is often left incomplete 
by the speaker, either to save words, or because 
his meaning is plainly understood without words. 

Leaving out words which the hearer easily 
supplies is called Ellipsis, and a sentence from 
which something is omitted, is called an elliptical 
sentence. Sometimes the subject is omitted ; 
sometimes the predicate ; sometimes both. 

Go home. 

The subject you is omitted. 

How strange ! 

This sentence in full would be "How strange it is !" 

Ellipsis is most common in Imperative and 
Exclamatory sentences. It may be used in 
speaking much more than in writing, because the 
speaker's looks and motions may make his mean- 
ing plain. 

Supply the ellipsis in the following sentences : 

Give me a book. 

Go to that chamber. Why ? Because you are bidden. 

Whither are you going? To the city. 

Why did he come back ? For his boohs. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 67 

§ 02. The name of the person addressed forms 
no part of the sentence. It is used simply to 
call his attention to the sentence following. 

Harry, what have you there \ 

Jane, is this your book ? 

Exclamations generally stand alone, and 
neither modify, nor are modified. They are a 
kind of elliptical sentence. 

Yes, no, certainly, and some other words used 
in answering questions, do not modify the sen- 
tence with which they stand connected. They 
modify either an omitted verb, or the sentence 
containing the question. 

No, you are mistaken. 

Certainly, with pleasure. 

Yes, you may have it. 

Supply sentences to which the above may be answers, 
and if there is any ellipsis, supply it. 

§ 63. Analysis of sentences. 

An analysis of several sentences is now presented, that a plan for 
general use may be made plain. It is not so important to name 
the exact form as to name the use of the word in a sentence. 
The anatysis offered is designed to show what a pupil ought to 
know of a sentence when he has finished the book up to this 
point. 

1. On a pleasant morning in the early au- 
tumn, a traveler was riding leisurely along the 
valley. 

This is a simple sentence, containing but one subject 
and one predicate. It asserts something as a fact, and 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is therefore declarative. A traveler is that of which the 
assertion is made, and is, therefore, the subject. Was 
riding leisurely along the valley, on a pleasant morning 
in the early autumn, is the predicate. Traveler is the 
name of an object, and is, therefore, a noun. It is modi- 
fied by the specifying adjective a. Was riding is the verb 
of the predicate. Its form shows that the action spoken 
of \s past and unfinished. It is modified by leisurely, an 
adverb telling how; by the phrase along the valley, tell- 
ing where; and by the phrases, on a pleasant morning 
and in the early autumn, telling when the traveler was 
riding. On, in and along are prepositions. Their re- 
spective subsequents are morning, autumn and valley. 
Morning is modified by the descriptive adjective pleas- 
ant, and the specifying adjective a. Autumn is modified 
by the descriptive adjective early, and the specifying 
adjective the. Valley is modified by the specifying 
adjective the. 

§ 64. 2. The tree which stood by the road- 
side was struck by lightning last night. 

A declarative sentence ; complex, because the subject 
contains an adjective clause. The subject is, The tree 
which stood by the roadside ; the rest of the sentence is 
the predicate. The noun tree is modified by the, a speci- 
fying adjective, and by the clause which stood by the 
roadside. This clause is a specifying adjective clause ; 
adjective, because it modifies a substantive, and speci- 
fying, because it tells which tree is meant. Which is 
a relative pronoun. Its antecedent is tree. It is the sub- 
ject of the clause. Stood by the roadside is the predi- 
cate of the clause. Stood is a verb ; it asserts some- 
thing of which. Its form shows past time, finished. It is 
modified by the phrase by the roadside, telling where. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 69 

Was struck asserts something of tree, and is, therefore, a 
verb. Its form shows past time, finished, and also that 
the subject is not the doer of the action. It is said to 
be in the passive voice, past tense. It is modified by the 
phrase by lightning, telling what did the action ; also by 
the phrase, last night, telling when the action was done. 

§ 65. 3. Had you finished your work when 
I saw you walking in the garden ? 

A complex interrogative sentence, containing an ad- 
verbial clause. You is the subject. It is a pronoun 
standing for the name of some person addressed, and is, 
therefore, of the second person. Had finished is the 
verb of the predicate. Its form shows that the action 
is past and complete. It is modified by your work, tell- 
ing what was finished, and by the clause when I saw 
you, expressing time. The subject of the clause is 7, a 
pronoun standing for the name of the speaker, and there- 
fore of the first person. Saw is the verb of the clause. 
Its form shows that the action is past and finished. Its 
present form is see. It is modified by you, telling lohom 
I saw. You is modified by walking y a verbal adjective. 
'Walking is modified by in the garden, a phrase denoting 
place. When is an adverb of time, modifying saw, 
and also connecting the clause to the principal sentence. 

§ 66. 4. All ancient art was religious, but all 
modern art is profane. 

A compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
simple sentences. (The subjects And modifiers are 
plainly seen). The sentences are connected by the con- 
junction but. This conjunction shows that the sentences 
are compared with eacli other, and that the speaker 
wishes us to notice a difference. 



*70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 67. 5. Three kings had once met to form 
a treaty of peace. 

ANALYSIS BY WORDS. 

A simple declarative sentence. 

Three is a numeral adjective modifying kings. Kings 
is a noun, in the plural, subject of the sentence. Had, 
met is a verb, predicate of the sentence, past tense, 
active voice, denotes complete action. Once is an ad- 
verb, derived from the numeral adjective one, denotes 
time, and modifies had met. To form is an infinitive 
phrase, modifies had met, shows why they had met, or 
for what purpose they had met. A is a specifying ad- 
jective, modifies treaty. Treaty is a noun, modifies to 
form, shows what they had met to form. Of is a prep- 
osition, shows the relation between treaty and peace. 
Peace is a noun, subsequent of of and with of forms a 
phrase modifying treaty, showing what kind of treaty. 

§ 68. Sentences for analysis. 

The following sentences are selected from the Third Readers of 
several common series, as presenting the kind of sentences with 
which children, contemplated b}^ the plan of this grammar, are 
expected to be familiar. Teachers must remember that pupils at 
this stage are not expected to analyze very complex sentences. 

Just then her father came in from the field. 

Uncle William, may I go over to your store this morn- 
ing? 

One evening, soon after his father's return from the 
city, Edwin took his seat beside him. 

How long have you had that box ? 

During the night the cattle got into the garden, and 
destroyed every thing in it. 

JVever give up is a good motto. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 71 

Out of the little twigs these tall trees were made. 
His garments are red with the blood of the grape. 
Tell me, if you know, who he is, and what is his name. 
The frost looked forth one still, clear night, 
And whispered, " Now I shall be out of sight." 
Ben Adam had a golden coin one day 
Which he put at interest with a Jew. 
"Will you give my kite a lift?" said my little nephew 
to his sister. 

I think John Brown has it, for I saw him pick it up. 
Around the fire one winter night, 
The farmer's rosy children sat. 
The types with which the letters are printed are made 
of metal. 

The sound of dropping nuts is heard in the wood. 
As we were coming home we saw, ahead of us, a 
queer-looking affair in the road. 

Among the most beautiful of small birds is the Aus- 
tralian robin. 

The Cadi bowed to the ground, and kissed his mas- 
ter's hand. 

"A pleasant nap, indeed!" replied the swallow. 
" Keep your distance ! " said the pack horse, again 
throwing up his heels. 

He heard it ringing, and saw it glancing down the 
old mossy stones. 



LESSON XIV. 

LETTER WRITING. 

One of the most important things for a pupil to learn 
i hoio to write a letter. It is a necessity in every com- 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mon education. Yet mistakes in dating and directing 
letters are very common. Some years ago, an important 
school in Massachusetts advertised for a teacher, a Col- 
lege graduate, and one who had had experience in High 
Schools. Of one hundred and ten applicants, seventy 
were rejected in consequence of mistakes in spelling, 
punctuation, and in dating, folding, and directing their 
letters. 

The date of a letter properly means the time at which 
it is written. It commonly includes the name of the 
place from which the letter is sent. The date should 
stand near the top of the page ; on the first line, as a 
general rule. Care should be taken to commence far 
enough to the left to prevent crowding. 

The name of the post office comes first, then the name 
of the county, then the state, then the month and day of 
the month, then the year. These generally stand upoi? 
the same line, but if the names of the post office and 
county are long, it is better to make two lines, thus : 

Princeton, Bureau Co., III., Jan. dOtTi, 1869. 

Jefferson, Ashtabula Co., Ohio, ) 

September 29th, 1868. J 

In writing from large tow?is, or cities where letter 
carriers deliver letters, the name of the county is omit- 
ted, but the name of the street, and the number of the 
house are given, thus : 

310 E. 55th St., New York, June 1st, 1869. 

Let the pupils write other examples. Notice the punctuation 
carefully. 

Next follows the address. It should never stand on 
the same line with the date. Its usual place is on the 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 73 

second or third line below. It should stand to the 
left of the date ; thus 

Monticello, Jones Co., Iowa, Jan. 10th, 1869. 
Mr. George A. Walton, 

Dear Sir; 

This form of address is the common one for address- 
ing business letters, or letters to persons with whom one 
is slightly acquainted. If a business firm is addressed, 
the following forms may be used : 

Messrs. Harper and Brothers ; 

T. V. Farwell & Co., 

Gentlemen ; 

A married woman is addressed thus : 

Mrs. Mary Martin 

Dear Madam; 

An unmarried woman is addressed thus 

Miss Sarah Williams ; 

In writing to relatives, or intimate friends, they may 
be addressed by their first names, by the name which 
expresses the relationship, or by the title Friend, fol- 
lowed by the first name, or by the last name ; as, Dear 
Mother; Cousin James; Friend George; Friend Johnson. 

The heading of a letter, including the date, the ad- 
dress, and the beginning of the letter proper, should bo 
in the forms given below. 
4 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sangamo 
February 26th, 1869. 



Springfield, Sangamon Co., Illinois, ) 



Mr. Samuel Jones, 

Dear Sir ; In answer to your letter of inquiry, I 
beg leave to say, etc. 



244 Canal St., New York, Aug. 1st, '69. 
Messrs. P. Smith & Co.; 

We enclose you our price list, with the latest addi- 
tions and corrections. 



23 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La., ) 
November 25th, 1867. J 

Dear Brother William ; 

Your letter of the 15th inst. was received some days 



If the full name of the person addressed does not 
appear at the beginning of the letter, it is customary to 
write it at the bottom of the letter, below the writer's 
signature, and at the left hand. This is often of import- 
ance, as letters are sometimes miscarried and are opened 
by the wrong person. The one who opens the letter 
may wish to send it to the rightful owner, but if it is 
only addressed " Dear Ellen," or " Cousin Ralph," he 
does not know to whom to send it. 

A broad margin should always be left on the left of 
the page, but the lines should be filled out to the light. 
Great care should be taken to have no blots or erasures, 
and to write legibly. A mistake may sometimes lead to 
serious consequences. 

For the ending of a letter there are many forms. A 
few of the common ones are given. They should stand 
to the right rather than to the left of the page. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 75 



BUSINESS LETTER FORMS. 



Hoping to receive your order, we remain, 
Yours respectfully, 

Harper and Brothers. 
Messrs. J. H. Wilder & Co. 



Yours truly, 

James A. Lockwood. 
Agent for S. P. Sanders. 



Yours with respect, 

John Holmes. 
Daniel Anderson, Esq. 



Letters to friends admit more variety. 
Your affectionate son, 



Henry. 
or, ) 

I?idia?iapolis, 



To Mrs. Ellen Green, ) 
Us, Ind. ) 



J. R. Clark, 



Derry, N. IT. 



:\ 



Cordially yours, 

James Bo wen. 



Yours as ever, Affectionately yours, Yours in love, 
Yours in the good cause, Yours in Christ, are other 
forms which may be mentioned. 

No special directions need be given for folding a 
letter. One simple rule is to have as few folds as pos- 
sible. The paper should fill the envelope, but not crowd 
it. Nothing looks more clumsy than a small envelope 
with a large sheet of paper crowded into it. A paper- 
folder should be used to press down the folds, and make 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

them lie smooth, and to avoid soiling the paper. The 
first page should be folded inside. 

The common fault in directing envelopes is to begin 
too far to the right, so that the writing is crowded and 
one-sided. The direction should stand about in the 
middle of the envelope. The place for the stamp is on 
the upper right-hand corner, and the writing should not 
interfere with the stamp. The greatest pains should be 
taken to have the direction plain. Nine-tenths of letters 
lost are lost by careless direction. 



FORM FOR DIRECTION. 



[Stamp.] 

Daniel Anderson, Esq., 

288 Broad St., 

New York. 
Care of Ripley & Morse. 

The gummed part of the envelope, that is, the mova- 
ble flap, is always the top of the letter. The post office 
and state should be very distinct, for the convenience of 
those who are to deliver it. They do not care so much 
to know to whom it is to go, as where it is to go. So 
many post offices in the United States have the same 
name, that the state should always be given, and gene- 
rally the county. Except that in the case of large cities 
like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, etc., the name of 
the city alone is enough. 

A FORMAL BUSINESS LETTER. 

Washington, D. C, April ldth, 1831. 
Sir ; I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of 
yours of this date, in answer to mine of the same. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 77 

In reply to your remark that there is one expression 
in my letter to which you must except, I would respect- 
fully answer that I gave what I understood to be the 
substance of your conversation. I did not pretend to 
quote your language. 

I have the honor to be, with the greatest respect, 
Your obedient servant, 

John Branch. 
His Excellency, Andrew Jackson, ) 
President of the United States, j 

ORDINARY BUSINESS LETTERS. 

Princeton, III., August 1st, 1869. 
Messrs. G. & C. W. Sherwood ; 

The desks and settees ordered by me in June were 
received yesterday, in good condition. I find, by meas- 
urement of one of our rooms, that it will accommodate 
a few more pupils, and you will oblige me by forwarding 
immediately 

Twelve (12) single desks, folding seat, size B. 
I will remit the amount of your bill on receipt of the 
goods. 

Yours truly, 

William A. Dickinson, 
Chairman of Board of Education. 



Dover, Bureau Co., III., July 10th, 1869. 
Messrs. Hurd and Houghton ; 

Please change the address of the " Riverside Maga- 
zine," sent me at this place, to Sabula, Jackson Co., 
Iowa, and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

William H. French. 
Messrs. Hurd and Houghton, ) 

- 6.J 



459 Broome St., New York. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FAMILIAR LETTERS. 

Alpine House, Gorham, N R., ) 
July 20th, 1869. J 

Dear Mother ; 

According to our promise we write you immedi- 
ately after our arrival among the mountains. We are 
so tired with our long journey, and so much confused 
with the hundreds of new and strange things that we 
have seen, that we have decided to wait until we are a 
little rested before writing you a full history of our 
journey. We can only tell you that we are too happy 
to think of being sick, and have already seen more 
wonders than we supposed were in the whole world. 
With our best love to you and all the family. 
Your affectionate sons, 

George and Henry. 
Mrs. Ellen Maecy. 



Marietta, Ohio, June 18th, 1869. 
Dear Joe ; 

You know that you owe me two letters already, 
but I have some good news to tell you, and so I write. 
Our Active Base-Ball Club have just played a match 
game, and I send you enclosed a slip from our news- 
paper, which will tell you all about it. We won the 
game handsomely. I played second base, and did some 
pretty good batting. I made a clean score. I wi:»h you 
had been here to cheer for us. This is all that I can 
afford to write you until you pay up. 
Your old friend, 

Harry McKee. 
Joseph Martin. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 



19 



§ 70. Common errors corrected. 

A few common errors are noted. Their infinite number pre- 
vents a full list. Let every teacher firmly resolve to banish every 
one of them from his own speech, and from that of his pupils. 
Whenever and wherever they occur, in the school-room or out of 
it, make war upon them. Keep the most common and most 
offensive posted on the blackboard until they are overcome. 



WRONG EXPRESSION. 

When do you take up 

school ? 
I allowed to go. 
I could not git to go. 
We done our work. 
He seen him. 
There he sot. 
It was me. 
It was her. 
It was him or them. 
Who wants this ? Me. 
You had ought to go. 
Had I ought to go ? I think 

you had. 
Give me them books. 
Them molasses. 
He throwed a stone. 
He preached a funeral. 



I guess I will go. ) 

I reckon I loill go. j 

Last Tuesday was a week. 

You was there. 
I were there. 



CORRECT EXPRESSION. 

When do you begin or 
commence school? 

I meant to go. 

I could not go. 

We did our work. 

He saw him. 

There be sat. 

It was I. 

It was she. 

It was he or they. 

Who wants this ? I. 

You ought to go. 

Ought I to go ? I think 
you ought. 

Give me those books. 

That molasses. 

He threw a stone. 

He preached a funeral 
sermon; or, he conduc- 
ted a fnneral service. 

I think I shall go. 

Last Tuesday week; or, a 
week ago last Tuesday. 
You were there. 
I was there. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Every man went to their 

house. 
Who did you give it to ? 
The man lohich came. 
Set down and be quiet. 
I knoiced it. 
I laid abed all day. 
Just as lives as not. 
Be present in our midst. 

A specie of shells. 

I have got my lesson. 

This here knife. 

That ''are book. 

Your book is wore out. 

He drawed a knife. 

Have you wrote an exercise ? 

I hearn tell of it. 
He has done gone. 
I meant to have seen him. 
I hoped to have visited yon. 
We intended to have writ- 
ten. 
He said as how he bought it. 
They went for to find him. 
You might have went. 
He learned me grammar. 
I and my father. 
Do like I do. 
A heap of people. 
Might smart of corn. 
A good many. 
Quite warm. 



Every man went to his 
house. 

Whom did you give it to ? 

The man who came. 

Sit down and be quiet. 

I knew it. 

I lay abed all day. 

Just as lief as not. 

Be present in the midst of 
us. 

A species of shell. 

I have my lesson. 

This knife. 

That book. 

Your book is worn out. 

He drew a knife. 

Have you written an ex- 
ercise ? 

I have heard of it. 

He has already gone. 

I meant to see him. 

I hoped to visit you. 

We intended to write. 

He said that he bought it. 
They went to find him. 
You might have gone. 
He taught me grammar. 
My father and I. 
Do as I do. 
A great many people. 
A great deal of corn. 
A great many. 
(Quite means exactly, or 
completely.) Very warm. 



Intermediate course. 81 

I haint got any; I have none. 

The dress sets well. The dress sits well, or ^s 

well. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

What is a subject? What is a predicate? What is 
a sentence ? Does the order of words have any thing to 
do with the sense ? Where does the subject of a sen- 
tence generally stand? Where the predicate ? When 
is a sentence said to be inverted ? What are the ele- 
ments of a sentence? Define analysis. Define parts of 
speech. How many classes of words? Name them. 
Define a substantive. Define a noun. What is the differ- 
ence between a noun and a substantive? What are verbs ? 
Explain the terms modify and limit. Define an adjective. 
How is an adjective known? How can the part of speech 
of any word be known ? How is a thing described f How 
many kinds of adjectives, and what are they ? If an 
adjective stand as the subject of a sentence, what is 
omitted ? Is a noun ever used as an adjective ? What 
is a simple subject? Of what part of speech is it? 
What is a modified subject? What is a simple predi- 
cate ? Of what part of speech is it? What are adjec- 
tive modifiers? What are verbal modifiers ? What is 
a clause ? What is a phrase ? Give examples ? What 
are adverbs? What do they modify? Give examples. 
What do verbal modifiers generally express ? What is 
an adjective clause ? What is an adverbial clause ? 
How do adjective clauses usually commence? How do 
adverbial clauses usually commence ? 

What are pronouns ? What is meant by the antece- 
dent of a pronoun ? What are personal pronouns ? Ex- 
plain what is meant by person in grammar. Name the 
pronouns of the first, second and third persons. What 
are the relative pronouns? Where do they generally 
stand ? Where is the antecedent of a relative to be 
found? What are the compound personal pronouns, 
and how are they formed? What is an interrogative 
4* 



82 ii^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence? What are the interrogative pronouns? Where 
is the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun found ? 

For what are prepositions used ? Name the common 
prepositions? Name the prepositions which have oppo- 
sites. What is the subsequent of a preposition? What 
do a preposition and its subsequent usually modify ? 
What preposition with its subsequent usually modifies a 
noun? What are conjunctions? What are the common 
conjunctions ? What other words are used to connect 
clauses to sentences ? What are exclamations ? Give 
examples. 

What is the root of a word ? When is a word said 
to be derived from another? How are words derived 
from other words ? What is inflection ? What classes 
of words are inflected ? What is the singular number? 
What is the plural number? How is the plural formed 
from the singular ? When is a noun called a posses- 
sive ? How is the possessive formed in the singular? 
How in the plural? What preposition and subsequent 
often mean the same as the possessive? What three 
relations of nouns are expressed by change of ending ? 
Define Declension. 

How may verbs be varied in form ? What is ex- 
pressed by these variations ? What is tense ? What 
are the divisions of time ? What is conjugation ? What 
do the active voice forms show ? What is indicated by 
the passive voice forms ? What are participles ? How 
many has a verb? In what does the imperfect parti- 
ciple end? How does the perfect participle end ? What 
is the difference between a verbal adjective and any 
other adjective? What is a compound participle? How 
is a clause sometimes shortened by the use of a parti- 
ciple ? What other use has the verbal adjective in ing ? 
What is the infinitive ? 

What is comparison? What parts of speech are 
compared? Define the positive degree. Define the 
comparative, the superlative. How is the comparative 
formed? How the superlative? Are all adjectives 
compared? Give examples of adjectives which can not 
be compared. What is a diminutive ? In what do 
diminutives end ? Give examples. What are abstract 



INTERMEDIATE COUKSE. 83 

nouns? From what are they derived, and in what do 
they end ? 

What is a declarative sentence? What is an inter- 
rogative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? 
Define a simple, a compound, and a complex sentence. 
Give examples. 

Define ellipsis. In what sentences is it most common ? 
Give examples. 

What is included in the date of a letter ? Where 
should the date be placed? When may the state, or 
county, be left out of the date ? In writing from cities 
or large towns, what is included in the date ? Give 
examples of dates properly written. Where does the 
address stand? How is the date punctuated? How is 
the address punctuated? Where is a margin left blank? 
Give examples of the address of a letter. Give examples 
of the signature of letters. Direct an envelope properly 
to the publishers of this book. 



Common School Grammar. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The pupils who commence this part should be familiar 
with the Intermediate part, or its equivalent. They 
should know the elements of the sentence and the parts 
of speech, and should have the idea of inflection and 
modification. The teacher should continue to require 
abundant illustration, constant written practice, and fre- 
quent reviews, and require examples to be taken from 
books in common use which will illustrate every point. 

Correcting printers' proof-sheets is a very valuable 
exercise. The first proofs abound in mis-spelled words, 
inverted letters, faulty punctuation, improper use of 
capitals, different kinds of type mixed, and in omissions 
which materially affect the sense. In correcting these 
errors, the pupil learns practical grammar, and fixes the 
all-important habit of close, patient attention. Very 
likely the pupils will not observe every error, but they 
will improve rapidly by practice. 



LESSON XV. 

§ 71. Language is that by which thought 
and feeling are expressed. It includes signs, 
gestures, expressions of countenance, pictures or 
other symbols, inarticulate sowids, and wards. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 85 

Generally when language is spoken of, the language of words 
is meant. Brutes have a kind of language, expressed by motions 
and inarticulate sounds. The deaf and dumb have a language 
of signs. 

A Word is the written or spoken symbol of 
an idea. 

An Idea is a mental picture. The name of a person 
with whom we are acquainted, calls up in mind a kind 
of image of the person. In the same way we picture to 
ourselves unreal objects, or objects which we have never 
seen. The word is the sign of this picture. Different 
languages employ different signs for the same idea. 

§ 73. Grammar treats of the facts, law**, 

and rules of language. 

General Grammar treats of facts which, 
are common to all languages. 

The facts in regard to the sentence given in § 1, are the same 
in all languages, and belong to general grammar. 

English Grammar gives the facts, laws 

and rules of the English language. 

A Law is a fact which applies to a whole class of words ; a 
Rule is a guide in the use of language. It is a law of the lan- 
guage that abstract nouns (§ 57) are derived from adjectives; it 
is a rule that the relative pronoun stands after its antecedent. 

Language is usually divided into Oral and 
Written. Oral language is spoken, and is 
addressed to the ear ; written language is ad- 
dressed only to the eye. 

§ 73. Grammar is divided into four parts. 
Orthography, which treats of Letters. 
Etymology, which treats of Words. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Syntax, which treats of Sentences. 
Prosody, which treats of Accent, Punc- 
tuation, and Versification. 

LESSON XVI. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 74. Orthography treats of elementary 

sounds and the letters which represent them, 
of syllables, and of spelling. 

The sounds of the language and its pronunciation are 
often treated under a separate head called Orthoepy. 
Pupils are expected to learn most of Orthography from 
Readers and Spellers, and to learn the sounds thor- 
oughly. 

The English language has forty-three elemen- 
tary sounds. These sounds are expressed to the 
eye by twenty-six different characters, called let- 
ters. The letters of a language are called its 
Alphabet. 

Since forty-three sounds are represented by twenty- 
six letters, it follows that either some letters must repre- 
sent more than one sound, or that some sounds must be 
represented by two or more letters combined. Notice 
that the name of the letter is not the sound of the letter. 

§ 75. There are four principal styles of let- 
ters. 

Romah, A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; D, d ; E, e ; F, f. 
Italic, A, a; B,b; C\ c ; D,d; E,e; F. 



COMMON SCHOOL COUKSE. 87 

©i* (Sttgltsf), ft, a; H3, fi; <S,c; 23, ti ; 15, e; JF. 

Each letter is represented by two characters, differing 
in size, and generally in form. The great body of writ- 
ten or printed matter is made up of small letters. For 
rules for the use of the larger letters, called Capitals, 
see the Appendix. 

Italics are used to express emphasis. Emphatic words 
are sometimes commenced with a capital letter. Full- 
faced type is employed in school books to attract the 
attention to important words. In script, the underscore 
is employed to denote emphasis. 

§ 76. Sounds are divided into two classes, 
Vowel Sounds, and Consonant Sounds. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

A Vowel is a letter representing a sound 
which is uttered with the organs of speech open, 
and which can be prolonged. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a 
sound that can not be uttered without bringing 
some of the organs of speech in contact. 

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, and some- 
times y. The other letters are consonants. Y 
is a consonant at the beginning of a syllable. 

A Diphthong is a combination of two vowels, 
and is uttered at a single impulse of the voice. 

In a proper diphthong both vowels are sounded ; as 
in boil; in an improper diphthong one vowel is sounded ; 
as in beat, receive. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§77. Consonants are divided into Liquids 
and Mutes. 

The liquids are 1, in, n, r. They are also called 
Semi-rowels, because they represent sounds which can 
be prolonged. 

Mutes are sub-divided into 

1. .Labials, (or ^-consonants) b, f, p, v. 

2. Gutturals, (or throat-consonants) c hard, g, li, 
k, q. 

3. Unguals, (fow^rae-con son ants) <l, j, t, s, z. 

S, z, and c soft are called Sibilants, or hissing letters. 

II is called an aspirant, or breathing letter. C is soft, 
that is, has its hissing sound, before e, i y and y, and 
before the diphthong 02 • as in cent, city, cycle, Ccesar. 
Otherwise it is hard ; that is, it has the sound of Jc. 

G is soft, or is sounded like j, before e, i and y, in 
words derived from the Latin and Greek. Otherwise it 
is hard ; as in go, bag. 

A letter is silent, or mute, when it has no sound ; as, 
k and w in know, t in often, n in hymn. 

§ 78. The sounds of the language are given 
below as classified into labials, gutturals, and 
Unguals. 

Labials. Gutturals. Linguals. 

SONANT, NON-SONANT. SONANT, NON-SONANT. SONANT, NON-SONANT. 



b. 


p- 


g- 


k. q. 


d. t. 


V. 


f. ph. 




ch hard. 


Z. 8. C Soft. 

j. ch. 
zh, as sh. 
in azure, 
th, as th, as 
in this, in thin. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 89 

Sonant consonants can never be sounded with non- 
sonants, unless one or the other is changed in sound. 
Thus in the word slabs, the sonant b conies before the 
non-sonant s ; but in pronouncing, s has the sound of 
the corresponding z. In the word cupboard, the non- 
sonant p comes before the sonant b, and the word is 
pronounced as if written cubboard; an easier word to 
speak. 

Euphony means agreeable sound, and changes 
made in spelling, or in sound, to make a word 
more pleasant to the ear, are called euphonic 
changes. 

§ 70. A Syllable is a word, or a part of a 
word, uttered at one impulse of the voice ; with- 
out any break, or interruption of sound. A/way 
has two syllables ; un-in-tel-li-gi-ole has six. 

A word of one syllable is called a m©2io§yllaMe ; a 
word of two syllables is a di§§yilafolc ; and a word of 
three syllables is a trisyllable ; a word of more than 
three syllables is a polysyllable. 

The Accent of a word is an emphatic utter- 
ance of one of its syllables; as, hard' Ay, mb-mit'. 

Spelling is the expression of a word by its 
proper letters. Phonic spelling, or spelling by 
sounds, is the expression of a word by its ele- 
mentary sounds. 

Spelling by rule involves the study of prefixes and suffixes, ami 
the Rules oi* Spelling are contained in the appendix. Spelling 
lessons should generally be written. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



LESSON XVII. 

§ 80. Etymology treats of the Meaning, 
Derivation, Classification, Inflection and 

History of words. 

The meaning of a word is learned by its 
nse, by its derivation, or from a diction- 
ary. 

Neither teacher nor pupil can afford to be without a diction- 
ary. 

Derivation treats -of the Origin, primary 
meaning, and formation of words. 

The English language originated from the Anglo- 
Saxon and the Norman-Frencli. It contains many 
words from the Latin and from the Greek. 

From the Anglo-Saxon come all our pronouns, prep- 
ositions and conjunctions, and all verbs of the strong 
conjugation. 

§ 81. In respect to origin, words are classified 
into Primitive, Derivative, Simple and 
Compound. 

A Primitive word is not derived from any- 
other word in the language ; as man, boy, strike. 

A Derivative word is formed from some 
other word in the language by prefixing or suffix- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 91 

ing letters, or syllables, or by changing letters 
within the word; as, hoy4sk, man-/y, ^m-man, 
strike. 

A primitive word, from which other words are de- 
rived is called a stern. From the stem man are formed 
the derivative words, manly, manful, unman, mannish, 
men. 

The root of a word is that part which remains un- 
changed in its derivatives. The root is generally made 
up of consonants. The vowels of a word are more 
subject to change than the consonants. The same root 
may be common to several primitive words which re- 
semble each other in meaning. Thus, tw is the root of 
two, twain, twelve, twine, twist. Str is the root of 
string, strong, strew, straight. 

A §ianple word can not be separated into two or 
more words ; as, door, window, machine. 

A Compound word is made up of two or more sim- 
ple words ; as, door -mat, window-sash, sewing-machine. 

In compound words the accent is upon the first part ; 
as, steam-boat, row-boat. 

Let the pupils think out the reason of this. If they have a 
clear idea of emphasis, it will not be difficult. 

For the use of the hyphen between the parts of a compound 
word, see the subject of Punctuation. 

Words are sometimes compounded to express one 
meaning, and written separately to express another. 
For instance, a glass house is a house made of glass ; 
a glass-house is a house where glass is made. 

The teacher is expected to require of the class illustrations 
enough to fix every fact clearly in mind. When the pupil is 
able to bring to the class a considerable number of illustrations 
of his own selection, it is tolerably certain that he understands 
the principle. Require written illustrations, and a great many 
of them. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 82. By the Classification of words is 
meant their arrangement in classes according to 
their use. The classes are called Parts of 
Speech. 

There are eight classes of words in English, 
the Noun, the Verb, the Pronoun, the ad- 
jective, the Adverb, the Proposition, the 
Conjunction, and the Exclamation. 

The specifying adjectives, an or a and the are sometimes called 
Articles. The verbal adjective (§ 5,) is also made a separate part 
of speech by some authors, and called a Participle. 

A Noun is the name of an object, either of 
perception or of thought, and can itself be the 
subject of a sentence. 

A Verb is a word which, in some of its forms, 
can be used as the simple predicate of a sentence. 
Its office is to assert. It usually asserts the 
being, state or action of the subject. 

A Pronoun is a word used to supply the 
place of a noun. 

An Adjective is a word which modifies a 
substantive by naming a quality or attribute, 
or by pointing out which, or how many are 
meant. 

An Adverb is a word whose office is to 
modify a verb, a sentence, or some word which 
is not a substantive. 

A Preposition is a word which connects a 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 93 

substantive to some word which is modified by 
the preposition and its subsequent. 

A Conjunction is a word whose office is to 
connect words, phrases, clauses and sen- 
tences. 

An Exclamation is a word used by itself to 
express emotion or feeling, — forming no part of 
the sentence. 

The Theme of a word is that form which is 
used as the name of the word ; or, as the starting- 
point from which other forms are derived. Thus 
we speak of the pronoun who, though it has 
the forms whose and whom. Who is the 
theme of the pronoun. 

§ 83. By Inflection is meant that change 
of form which words undergo to express change 
in their relations to other words, or in their 
meaning. If a change is expressed by a sepa- 
rate word, the word changed is modified, not 
inflected. 

Wise, taken as a theme, has the inflected forms wiser, 
wisest. His and him are inflections of the theme he. 

§ 84. The History of a word tells its origin, 
its primary meaning, and the changes which it 
has undergone. 

Thus knave first meant boy, then servant, now rascal. 

An Obsolete word is one which was once in 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

good use, but is not now. An Obsolescent 
word is going out of use. 

Leasing, meaning lying, is obsolete; pate for head, is obsolescent. 
LESSON XVIII. 

THE NOUN. 

§ 85. A Noun is a substantive name, or 
the name of an object. It includes the names 
of all things which exist, or are spoken of as 
existing. 

A Substantive is any word or group of 
words which is used as a subject of a sentence., 
an object of a verb, or a subsequent of a preposi- 
tion. 

In grammatical analysis many sentences are formed whose 
subjects are phrases, or words used out of their common use. These 
subjects should be called substantives or substantive phrases. In 
analyzing the sentence, " Will go is the predicate," call will go a 
substantive phrase. 

Nouns are divided in Proper and Common. 

A Proper noun is the name of one object, dis- 
tinguishing it from all others of its class ; as, 
Peoria, Illinois, William. 

A Common noun is the name of a class 
which may include a great number of individ- 
uals ; as, city, state, boy. 

The name of the class may be applied to any object 
in the class. If the proper name of a person is not 
known, we address him by a common name ; as, friend, 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 95 

stranger, sir. His proper name is his own name ; it 
belongs to him alone. 

A proper noun becomes common when made to apply 
to a Class ; a common noun becomes proper when 
applied exclusively to an individual. 

Ex. — There are six Williams in the school. Williams 
is a common noun, because applied to a class. 

Mr. Field bought the field. The subject Field is a 
proper noun, because made the property of one man. 

§ 8G. Common nouns are subdivided into Ab- 
stract, Collective, Verbal and Diminutive. 

An Abstract noun is the substantive name of 
a quality (§ 13 ; § 57), derived from a descrip- 
tive adjective. Abstract nouns generally end in 
ness as in kindness; tli as in truth; ce or cy 
as in prudence, clemency ; in ity as in ability. 
They do not admit the plural nor the possessive 
form. 

A Collective noun has a singular form, but 
is applied to a number of individuals; as, flock, 
army, host. 

A Verbal noun admits the modifiers of a 
verb. In form it may be either the Partici- 
ple (§ 51), or the Infinitive (§ 54). 

Ex. — Playing foot-ball is violent exercise. Learning 
Latin is not easy. To hear and to see are very differ 
ent. 

A Diminutive is a derivative noun denoting 
a small thing of the hind expressed by its prim- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



itive (§56). The diminutive endings are et, 
kin, lock, Sing, el, ie. 

Ex. — Floweret, mannikin, hillock, duckling, petrel 
(that is, little Peter, because it walks on the water), 
wifie, Mattie. Ling sometimes denotes contempt, as in 
lord ling. Diminutives frequently express endearment. 

A Complex noun is a group of names not 
compound applied to a single person ; as, Presi- 
dent William Henry Harrison. Marcus Tul- 
lius Cicero. 

LESSON XIX. 

INFLECTION OF THE NOUN. 

§87.* Nouns are inflected (§83), or change their 
forms, to distinguish a name which denotes more than 
one from a name which denotes one object. This is 
called the inflection of dumber (§ 41). 

They are also inflected to denote the relation of Pos- 
session (§ 43). This is called the inflection of Case. 

A few nouns are inflected to denote a difference in 
Sex. This is called the inflection of Oender. 

The Inflection of a noun is called Declension. 

Number, Crender, and Case are called 
Attributes of a noun. Person (§ 28) is also 
called an attribute of nouns, but is not indicated 
by inflection. 

The principal use of a knowledge of these attributes 
is to determine the pronoun, which should be used in 
place of the noun, and the form of the verb to which 
the noun is subject. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 97 

§ 88. The name of a single object is said to be in 
the Singular number. The singular number is the 
tlicmc of the noun. 

A name including more than one object of its class is 
in the Plural number. 

The plural form is derived from the singular by 
adding § ; as, book, books ; house, houses. 

If s will not unite in sound with the final letter of the 
theme, es is added ; as, match, matches. 

Nouns ending in s, sh, x, and ch non-sonant, add es ; 
as, box-es, brush-es, church-es, gas-es. 

Nouns ending in o generally form their plural in es, 
but there are exceptions ; as, folio, grotto, portico, which 
form their plurals ins. 

Nouns ending in'Y preceded by a consonant, change 
y to i, and add es ; as, city, cities. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s, without 
change of y ; as, days, turkeys, chimneys. 

A few nouns form their plural by changing the 
vowel ; as, man, men ; tooth, teeth. Plurals thus* 
formed are called strong plurals ; that is, they make 
their changes within the word; without the aid of 
endings. 

A few nouns have a plural ending en ; as, oxen, 
children. Housen for houses, is ©osolete (§ 84). 

Compounds ending in man, change man into men to 
form their plural ; as, alderman, seaman. But German^ 
Turcoman, Mussulman, and talisman, are not com- 
pounds of man, and add s in the plural. 

§ 89. A few nouns have double plurals. 
Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society). 
Die, dies (for coining), dice (for gaining). 

Index, indexes (of books), indices (signs of powers). 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pea, peas (individuals). pease (different kinds). 
Penny, pennies (coins), pence (value). 

Cow, cows, kine (only in poetry). 

Genius, geniuses (men of ge- genii (spirits), 
nius), 

Many foreign words retain their original plural; as, 
genus, genera. No rules can be given for their inflection. 

Some foreign words have an English plural, and also 
retain their original; as, cherub, cherubs, or cherubim 
(never cherubims). 

Letters and figures form their plural by adding s, pre- 
ceded by an apostrophe ; as, Cross your tfs, and dot youi 
Vs. Make your 9's closed at the top. 

Nouns denoting things weighed or measured, used in 
their common sense, have no plural idea, and, of course, 
no plural form ; as, wheat, gold, sugar. If used in the 
plural, they either denote different kinds; as, wines, 
teas; or, things made of the material; as, irons, brasses. 
Names of chemical elements have no plural ; as, oxygen, 
iodine. 

Abstract nouns have no plural. Collective nouns 
sometimes express plurality without the plural form. 

Some nouns have no plural form, but are used in both 
numbers; as, deer, sheep, trout. (Give other examples.) 

Some nouns have only the plural form ; as, victuals, 
embers, ashes. In this class are several names of ob- 
jects made up of two corresponding parts; as, tongs, 
drawers, scissors. (Give other examples.) 

Some nouns which seem to have plural forms are 
always singular; as, molasses, measles, news. 

§ 90. In Compound nouns the plural ending is an- 
nexed to that part which is really made plural ; as, 
man-trap, man-traps ; father-in-law, fathers-in-law. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 99 

When proper nouns are preceded by a title before 
which a specifying or a numeral adjective stands, the 
name is made plural and not the title / as, our six Gen- 
eral /Smiths/ the two Miss Chapins. 

Whenever the same surname is annexed to two or 
more Christian names, preceded by a title, or whenever 
the same title includes different persons, the title is 
made plural ; as, Misses Mary and Ellen Brown ; Messrs. 
George and James Harper; Generals Meade, Banks and 
Butler. 

In other cases, eitlier the name or the title may be 
made plural; as, the Misses Thompson; or, the Miss 
Thompsons. Usage inclines to the latter form when 
the name does not end in s. 

When words are used substantively they form the 
plural regularly ; as, the whys and the wherefores. In 
long compounds the s is added to the last word ; as, 
will-o'-the-wisps. 



LESSON XX. 

GENDER AND CASE. 

§ 91. A few nouns have an inflection corresponding 
to the different sex of the beings named by them ; as, 
Abbot, abbess/ hero, heroine/ Lucius, Lucia. This in- 
flection is called CJender. 

The use of gender is to determine what pronoun 
should be used instead of a noun in the third person 
and singular number. Natural gender depends upon 
the meaning of the word ; Grammatical gender varies 
the form to express the meaning. 

Nouns denoting male being's are of the. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Masculine gender; nouns denoting female 
beings are of the Feminine gender. 

Names of objects without sex, or whose sex is 
unimportant, are of the Neuter gender. 

Names applied to beings of either sex are 
sometimes said to be of the Common gender; 
as, child, parent, cousin, pupil. 

Nouns which are inflected to denote gender, change 
the masculine ending into e§§, ine, or rix, to denote 
the corresponding feminine. E§s is the only English 
ending, the others belong to foreign words. Sometimes 
the endings are added to the masculine form. 

Ex. — Actor, actress; hunter, huntress ; count, count- 
ess ; Joseph, Josephine ; Wilhelm, Wilhelmine ; hero, 
heroine ; executor, executrix ; administrator, adminis- 
tratrix. 

Some foreign words have other endings. 

Such words as uncle, aunt, king, queen, beau, belle, 
have natural gender, but the pronoun to be used for them 
is known by their meaning, not by their ending. 

Sex is often ascribed to things without life by a fig- 
ure called Per§onification. Objects remarkable for 
strength, violence, or size, are usually made masculine; 
those remarkable for grace, delicacy, or beauty, are 
made feminine. Thus, the sun, the wind, the winter, 
the frost, are masculine; the moon, the rose, the lily, 
the spring, are feminine. 

In ordinary speech animals are masculine or feminine, 
according to their leading attributes. Thus the lion and 
elephant are generally masculine; the cat is generally 
feminine. 

The masculine gender is used for all general state- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 101 

ments including both sexes ; as, " All men are mortal ;" 
" No man cares for him." 

Names of countries towns, and colleges are always 

personified as feminine ; since they are regarded as 
standing in a motherly relation to their inhabitants, or 
pupils; as, "Our country calls on her sons," "Jerusalem 
poured out her countless thousands," " Old Harvard 
(College) calls her children home." 

§ 92. By the Case of a noun is meant the relation 

in which it stands to other words, and to the sentence. 
The word Case properly means ending, and was 

introduced into our language from a language in which 
different relations are indicated by different endings. 
There is no necessity for retaining it when speaking of 
nouns. Some pronouns have three endings, expressing 
three relations. 

A noun in a sentence may be related to the 
sentence as Subject ; to another noun, as Pos- 
sessive 5 to a verb as Object 5 to a preposition 
as Subsequent 5 or it may stand without gram- 
matical relation. 

The noun has two forms in each number; 
one for the Possessive, and one for all other 
relations. 

Those who use the name of case for the relations call 
the subject the Nominative case; the object of a verb, 
or the subsequent of a preposition, the Objective case, 
and a noun in the possessive relation, the Possessive 
case; calling all other relations the Independent case. 
But it is better to drop the term Case in analyzing, and 
to speak of a noun as Subject, Object, Subsequent, 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Possessive, or as Absolute ; that is, without gram- 
matical relation. 

The Possessive singular is formed by an- 
nexing to the theme the ending s, preceded by 
an apostrophe 5 as, ship, ship's 5 river, river's. 

The apostrophe shows the omission of a vowel (e or i) which 
in old English formed a part of this ending. 

Plural nouns ending in s make their Posses- 
sive form by adding the apostrophe ; as, farmers 7 
wives; eagles' wings. 

Plural nouns not ending in s make their Pos- 
sessive form by adding s preceded by the apos- 
trophe; as, women's. 

Sometimes when a noun in the singular, of more than 
one syllable, ends in a hissing sound it adds the apos- 
trophe only, especially before a word beginning with s, 
to avoid too many hissing sounds ; as, Achilles' shield : 
Moses' disciples ; conscience' sake. 

Complex and Compound nouns, and nouns with 
modifying phrases regarded as one title, add the ending 
to the last word ; as, John Paul Jones' 1 ship ; a Major- 
GeneraVs commission; the King of England's crown; 
Smith the booksellers store. 

§ 93. A word given as a model by which to 
inflect other words is called a Paradigm. 

FULL INFLECTION OF A NOUN. 

Singular. Plural. 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 
General form, hero, heroine, heroes, heroines, 
Possessive, hero's, heroine's, heroes', heroines'. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 103 

INFLECTION OF A NOUN WITHOUT GENDEE. 

Singular. Plural. 

General form, river, rivers. 

Possessive, river's, rivers'. 

LESSON XXI. 

THE VERB. 

§ 94. A Verb is a word whose office is to 
assert, and which, usually asserts the exist- 
ence, action, or state of its subject (§ 8). 

The word verb means word, and was given to this 
part of speech as the most important. In the Latin 
language, from which we derive the names of our parts 
of speech, it was frequently used alone as a complete 
sentence. Other words are of equal importance in 
meaning, but no other word can assert. 

As verbs are necessary in every sentence, and as 
actions admit of more variations than objects, the verb 
has more variations of form than any other part of 
speech. Besides asserting action or existence, verbs 
have forms which name actions, and are, therefore, 
verbal nouns. These nouns differ from other nouns 
by admitting verbal modifiers ; as, To speak well is 
very desirable. 

The theme of the verb is that form which admits the 
preposition to before it ; as to have, to see. This form 
is called the Infinitive, or unlimited form. 

Verbs have also Adjective forms, called 
Participles; as. a laboring man; a printed 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

page. Participles are distinguished from other 
adjectives by their form, their derivation, and 
their modifiers. 

From the same theme, then, we have asser- 
tive forms, or verbs proper, Substantive 
forms, and Adjective forms. 

The Infinitive and Participle sometimes imply 
assertion (§52), but do not make it directly. 

§ 05. The Inflection of a verb is called its 
Conjugation. 

Verbs are inflected to give a Substantive form, 
and two Adjective forms ; to show the time of 
the act or state asserted; and to indicate the 
Person and dumber of the subject. 

Verbs have two Adjective forms; the Imperfect or 

incomplete, and the Perfect or complete form. 

(The Imperfect is sometimes called the Present, and the Perfect 
the Past participle.) 

The Imperfect participle is formed from the theme by 
adding ing; as, do-ing, be-ing, chang(e)-ing. 

This form is also used as a Substantive $ as, 
jRunning is violent exercise. When so used it is 
called a Gerund, or a Verbal Noun. 

The Perfect Participle is formed from the theme by 
the endings ed, and en. Ed sometimes becomes d or 
t, and en becomes n. Examples : 

I.oved, saved, paid, dealt, discovered. 

Written, thrown, given, seen, known. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 105 

§ 90. The principal inflection of the verb is 
to express the time of the thing asserted, and 
its state as complete or as incomplete. 

Hence, in German, verbs are called time-words. 

The forms of the verb which express time, are called 
Ten§e forms, or simply, Tenses. 

» Time is naturally divided into Present, Past, and 
Future ; and any act may be spoken of as complete 
or incomplete at any time. Therefore six time-forms, 
or tense-forms, at least, are needed viz. : 

PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE. 

Complete. Complete. Complete. 

Incomplete. Incomplete. Incomplete. 

The English language has so few of these forms that 
the forms of a Latin verb are given to show how these 
facts are expressed by inflection. 

The root ambula means walk. 
Present Incomplete. Ambulat ; he is walking. 
Present Complete. Ambulavit ; he has been walking. 
Past Incomplete. Ainbulabat ; he was walking. 
Past Complete. Ambulaverat ; he had been walking. 
Future Incomplete. Ambulabit ; he will be walking. 
Future Complete. Anibulaverit ; he will have been 

walking. 

Besides these meanings, the above forms also ex- 
press different meanings less definite. The meaning is 
determined by the connection. 

Ambulat means, he walks, he does walk. 

Ambulabat means, he used to walk. 

Ambulabit means, he will walk. 

Ambulavit means, he walked, he did walk. 

Ambulaverat means, he had walked. 

Ambulaverit means, he will have walked. 
5* 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 97. To express the fourteen different meanings 
given above, the theme walk has but three inflections ; 
walks, walking, walked. In place of varying the verb, 
the idea required is expressed by other verbal forms 
standing between the subject and the stem walk. 

A Latin verb complete had over a hundred different 
endings; not counting the still greater number of inflec- 
tions of its adjective forms. These endings were all 
significant. Thus servabimtur meant, They will be pre- 
served. B denoted future time; n, the plural number; 
t, the third person ; r, the passive voice ; u was used 
simply to give the syllables a vowel sound. 

The English verb has properly two tenses; 
called the Present and the Past. 

The Present tense is used for general assertions, and 
may be used for either present, past, or future time. 
The sun rises in the East, means that it does generally ; 
has risen there in the past, and will rise there in the 
future. I go to St. Louis to-morrow, implies future 
time. A historian describing a battle, speaks thus of 
the commander : " He comes in all haste, finds every 
thing in confusion." He uses the present as if the 
actions mentioned were going on in our sight. 

§ 98. Paradigm of the verbs go and change. 

Present tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, go, change. go, change. 

Second person, goest, change§t. go, change. 

Third person, goe§, changes. go, change, 

(old ending eth.) 
Notice that the ending st marks the second singular, 
(which is used only with the pronoun thou), and s marks 



COMMON SCHOOL COUESE. lOV 

the third singular. Etli is obsolete, except in solemn 
style and in poetry. The other forms are the same as 
the theme. S is the only personal ending in common 
use. 

Past tense of the verbs move and write. 

Singislar. Plural. 

First person, moved, wrote. moved, wrote. 

Second person, movedst, wrotest. moved, wrote. 

Third person, moved, wrote. moved, wrote. 

Notice that the Past tense has but one personal end- 
ing, and that occurs in the second singular which is 
seldom used. 

§ 99. There are two methods of forming the 
Past Tense and Past Participle, already illus- 
trated. Move, and similar verbs form the Past 
Tense by adding d or ed to the theme. The 
Past Participle of such verbs is the same as the 
Past Tense. D is sometimes changed into its 
corresponding non-sonant t. 

Such verbs are of the weak (or regular) con 
jugation. Most verbs are conjugated in this 
way. 

Some verbs — mostly of one syllable, and all 
of Anglo-Saxon origin — form their past tense 
by changing the vowel sound of the theme, 
and form their Past Participle by adding n or 
en to the theme, or to the Past Tense. 

Such verbs are of the Strong (or irregular) 
conjugation. 



108 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



For convenience, we call verbs weak and strong, instead of say- 
ing of the weak, or of the strong conjugation. 

The theme, the past tense, and the past 
participle, are called the Principal Parts 

of a verb. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 

Weak Conjugation. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. P 


AST PAKTICIP 


Change, 


changed, 


changed. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Have, 


ha(ve)d, 


had. 


Ask, 


asked, 


asked. 


Gild, 


gilt, 
Strong Conjugation. 


gilt. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 



LESSON XXII. 



§ 100. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

Before taking up compound verbal forms, it seems necessary 
to discuss a relation of the verb which belongs to Syntax rather 
than to Etymology. 

In such expressions as It seems; I may; That looks; 
He was informed; His name is; I gave; Franklin is 
called; The merchant sold; there is a subject and a 
verb, or the elements of a sentence, and yet the sentence 
is not complete. An affirmation is made, but something 
more is needed to complete the sense. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 109 

Any modifier which completes the sense of 
the verb is called a Complement. 

The expressions given above may be filled out thus : 
It seems strange. I may go. That looks well. He was 
informed of the fact. His name is Charles. I gave 
a dime. Franklin is called a sage, or, is called icise. 
The merchant sold his store. The italicized words are 
Complements. 

Some verbs admit only an adjective complement ; as, 
he looks well. 

Some verbs admit only the infinitive complement; as, 
may go, can read, shall hear, must spell, dare say, 
ought to attend. 

Some verbs admit either a noun or an adjective com- 
plement ; as, He is called good, he is called a mechanic; 
Henry is honest, Henry is a student. 

Some verbs admit either an infinitive complement, or 
a noun complement ; as, He did learn; he did his work. 

Some verbs take either a noun or a clause as a com- 
plement ; as, They said their lessons; they said that it 
was not so. 

Many verbs can be used either with or without a com- 
plement ; as, Fire burns (no complement necessary) ; 
We burn coal (complement necessary). 

§ 101. The substantive complement of a verb 
which does not admit an adjective complement 
is called the Direct object. 

A verb is said to be Transitive when it 
requires an object. If it requires no object, it 
is Intransitive. 

The transitive verb is also called Active, and the 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

intransitive verb is called IVeuter. The dictionaries 
mark a verb which is usually transitive v. a. ; that is, a 
verb active ; and other verbs v. n. ; that is, verb neuter. 
But the use of the verb in the sentence must determine. 
Strike expresses vigorous action, but is sometimes in- 
transitive, as in the sentence " Strike for your altars and 
your fires ! " The object of a verb may be developed 
by the question whom or what f Whom did you see ? 
I saw the Governor (object of saw). 

We heard that you were going. What did you hear ? 
That you were going. (The clause is the object of 
heard.) 

The object is often an infinitive, a clause, or an en- 
tire sentence; as, She heard what he said. He said " I 
will go." 

A Customary object is often omitted ; as, The farmer 
plows (the ground), and sows (the seed). The trader 
buys and sells (goods). 

Care must be taken to distinguish the object from a 
noun forming part of the predicate. If the verb ad- 
mits an adjective complement, it is not transitive. In 
the sentence, He is a sailor, sailor answers the question, 
What is he? but it is not an object, for is admits an 
adjective complement. This subject will be referred to 
again under Pronouns and under Syntax. 

The object is often called an element of the sentence, 
but it is not an essential element. 



LESSON XXIII. 

IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

• 10&. Verbs which do not form the principal 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. Ill 

parts according to the models given in the pre- 
ceding chapter are called Irregular. 

Verbs which are not used in all their parts 
are called Defective. 

The most irregular verb in the language is be, whose 
conjugation is given below : 

Principal parts, be, was, toeen. 
Present tense, singular number, am, art, i§. 

Present tense, Plural number, are in all persons. 

Past tense, singular number, wa§, wast, was. 

Past tense, plural number, were in all persons. 

Have is irregular by dropping the v before the end- 
ings, except before ing. 

Present tense, sing., I have, thou ha(ve)st, he lia(ve)s. 
Past tense, Iia(ve)cl, hadst, had, etc. 

Go has no past tense, but supplies the place of one 
by borrowing from the verb wend. 

Past tense, I went, thou wentest, etc. 

The following verbs want the infinitive and 
the participles, and are irregular in their past 
tense : 

TSieme, may, can, must, shall, will,* ought. 
Past, might, could, must, should, would, ought, 

Returning to the Latin verb (§ 96), notice that the 
English verb has but two tenses to correspond to the 
six in Latin. Twelve of the fourteen meanings given 
for the Latin forms were expressed by combining the 
irregular and defective verbs given above with one an- 
other, and with the Gerund walking, and with the 
Infinitive walk. By such combinations a variety oi 

* Will has sometimes the regular weak past, trilled. 



112 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



meanings is expressed, even greater than in the Latin 
verb. The forms corresponding to the Latin tenses are 
generally called tenses of the verb which stands last in 
the group, and the preceding verbs are called Auxilia- 
ries, or helpers. But really the verb which stands first 
in the group of verbal forms is the principal verb — the 
true asserting word — and the forms standing after it, 
which are not assertive forms, are its modifiers, com- 
plements or auxiliaries. The only word which varies its 
form is the first in the group. This admits personal end- 
ings. 



walked. 



walked. 



§ 104. The following groups of verb-forms corre- 
spond to the tenses of the Latin verb • 
Present complete or perfect, 

I have, thou hast, he has 
We have, you have, they have 
Past perfect, 

I had, thou hadst, he had 
We had, you had, they had 
Future incomplete, 

I shall, thou wilt, 
We shall, you will, 
Future perfect, 
I shall, thou wilt, he will ) 

We shall, you will, they will ) 

In this way are made up the forms for completed 
action in present or past time, and for future time, com- 
plete and incomplete. 



he will 
they will 



walk. 



have walked. 



§ 10o. To denote that an action is finished in pres- 
ent time, the present tense forms of have take after 
them the oerfect participle. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 113 

To denote that any thing was complete in past time, 
the past tense of have takes after it the perfect parti- 
ciple. 

Have denotes possession. "I have discovered a truth" meant 
once, I possess a truth which has been discovered, or whose dis- 
covery is completed. This form did not at first imply that the 
speaker discovered the truth. But as the discoverer and the pos- 
sessor were often the same person, this form soon came to imply 
that the speaker made the discovery ; and next, the idea of com- 
pletion was transferred to have ; and Imve lost its idea of possession, 
and came to be regarded as a sign of completion. There was once 
no difference between "I have written a letter," "I have a writ- 
ten letter," and " I have a letter written," but there is a marked 
difference now. Has is sometimes used like is ; as a simple state- 
ment of existence. He is come, and he has come, are both used in 
the same sense. 

§ 100. The incomplete future tense is made up by 
compounding the verbs shall and will with the infini- 
tive of some verb. Shall implies necessity ; will de- 
notes intention. To express simple futurity, shall is 
used in the first person, will in the second and third. 
Will in the first, and shall in the second and third per- 
sons, express the determination of the speaker. 

The foreigner who fell into the water and cried, " I 
will drown ; nobody shall help me," declared his inten- 
tion of drowning, and his determination to receive no 
help. 

Shall in the third person often denotes that the 
speaker expects that something will necessarily happen ; 
as, " Goodness and mercy shall follow me." The 
psalmist knows they will surely come, because the Lord 
is his shepherd. 

Let the pupil now form the compound tenses of verbs, begin- 
ning with the verb be, and then taking verbs of the weak conju- 
gation. The teacher should ask for the Present Perfect, Past 
Perfect, etc., forms of the verb, and have the pupils give them 
complete. Let different subjects be given in the third person ; uot 
confining the pupil to a single pronoun. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXIV. 

PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC FORMS OF THE VERB. 

§ 107. The Progressive ibrm of the verb 
is made up of the forms of the verb be, followed 
by the gerund. This form presents an action 
as in progress, and corresponds to the ordinary 
meanings of the Latin tense forms. 

A Synopsis of a verb is the giving of a sin- 
gle personal form in each tense. 

Synopsis of the verb send. Progressive form, third 
person, singular. 

Present, is sending. Present Perfect, have been send- 
ing. Past, was sending. Past Perfect, had been send- 
ing. Future, will be sending. Future Perfect, will have 
been sending. In the form will have been sending, will 
is the true verb, or assertive form ; have is an infinitive 
complement, object of will ; been is the past participle 
of be, and taken with have implies completion ; sending 
is a gerund ; it was once preceded by the preposition a, 
as we still say, a-fishing, and is an adjunct of been. 

§ 108. Do takes an infinitive after its present 
and past tense, and makes the Emphatic form 
of the verb ; as, I do learn, I did try. 

It is also used in questions before the subject; as, 
Did you go? Do you know? In negative sentences 
do may stand before not followed by an infinitive ; as, 
He does not knoic, instead of he knows not. 

§ 100. May, can, must, shall and will take after 
them the infinitive ; as, may learn, might hear, can talk, 



COMMON SCHOOL COTJESE. 115 

could see, must stay. They often stand before the com- 
plete present and past forms of other verbs ; as, may 
have written, might have been. 

These verbs are often treated as if very peculiar in 
meaning. But if the pupil learns their exact meaning 
from a dictionary, he will find no difficulty in their use, 
except in explaining how their past forms can be used 
when the sense is plainly future. Thus, one says, "I 
might do that for you to-morrow." " We could easily 
stop that." What is past ? Not the actions implied in 
do and stop ; these are present forms, and may be used 
for the present or future. The speaker implies that 
something is past in his own mind which he is thinking 
of; some condition, for instance. " I might do that for 
you to-morrow, if you wished me to do it." The condi- 
tional clause having its verb in past time, the other verb 
is past also. Compare " I may do it, if you wish " 
with " I might do it, if you wished." The first sentence 
implies that the speaker is in doubt whether the person 
spoken to wishes it done ; the second form implies that 
the doubt is past. 

§110. The forms of the verb already given 
are called the Active Voice. 

The forms of the verb be, followed by the 
complete participle, make up the Passive 
Voice 5 as, am loved, were seized, have been 
taken. 

This form does not in itself imply that the subject is 
passive, or has something done to it; but simply that 
the act is finished. By common usage this form is used 
when the act is not finished by the subject. Compare 
" I have finished the letter " with " The letter is finished." 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The first gives prominence to the subject J as the doer 
of the action, the second gives the fact of completion 
as the important fact. 

If the doer of the action is expressed in the Passive 
form, it is done by an adjunct which follows the predi- 
cate verb, introduced by the preposition by; as, The 
battle was won by the English. The same idea may be 
actively expressed thus : The English won the battle. 

§ 111. Only transitive verbs admit the pas- 
sive form. Any idea expressed by the active 
form of a transitive verb, may also be expressed 
by the passive form, by making the direct object 
of the active form the subject of the passive 
form; as, 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

I broke the stick. The stick was broken. 

They captured the city. The city was captured. 

This distinction of the active and passive forms is a 
difference in meaning, rather than in form, and need not 
be given in analyzing the sentence. It is only given 
because pupils will find the term in general use, and 
ought to know what it means. There is just as much 
passivity implied in the sentence, The boy is sick, as in 
the sentence, The boy is struck. In either case, the last 
word in the sentence is an adjective, forming a part of 
the predicate. 

§ 113. Of late, a progressive passive form has been 
making its way into newspapers, and into common 
speech. It inserts being before the complete participle 
of the group. A synopsis of this form, third singular, 
is given below. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 117 

The picture is being painted. 

The picture was being painted. 

The picture will be being painted. 

The picture has been being painted. 

The picture had been being painted. 

The picture will have been being painted. 
The proper form to express the above is the Gerund 
following the forms of be/ as, the picture is painting • 
formerly written, the picture is a-painting. The new 
form is unauthorized by the usage of the best writers, 
contains a useless and contradictory term, and fails to 
express what those who use it intend to say. No one 
would think of saying "I am being a man;" but, as 
being admits either a noun complement, or an adjective 
complement, it is as proper as " I am being sick," or 
" I am being beaten." Being is incomplete, and con- 
tradicts the complete participle which follows it. Is 
being built, means, is existing complete in respect to 
building ; or, simply, is built, and nothing else. There 
is just as much authority, analogy, and necessity for 
done gone, done finished, as for this new improvement. 

§ 113. The verb once had forms to denote whether 
an assertion was made as a fact, or as a condition, or 
supposition. These forms were called the Subjunctive 
Mode. 

The verb be still retains its subjunctive forms in the 
Present and Past tenses. 

Present Singular. I be, thou beest, he be. 

Present Plural. Be. 

Past Singular. I were, thou icert, he were. 

Past Plural. Were. 

These forms were used in suppositions, or in condi- 
tions ; as, Were he to do this, he would ruin his case. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If thou wert wise, thou wouldest at once escape. 

Though ray foes be many, I am not afraid. 

The third person singular of other verbs omits the 
ending 5 in the subjunctive form ; as, If he write a letter, 
instead of, If he writes a letter. 

Save is used in the second and third singular sub- 
junctive, instead of hast and has. 

The subjunctive forms are all obso!e§cent, except in 
the past tense of be. 

§ 114. The participle having, prefixed to a perfect 
participle, expresses completion in past time ; as, having 
written. This is called the compound participle. In 
the same way to have takes the past participle after it, 
and forms a compound, or perfect infinitive ; as, to have 
seen, to have known. This infinitive is not the equiva- 
lent of the Gerund, as the present infinitive is. I 
intended to see you ; or, I intended seeing you, are cor- 
rect; I intended to have seen you, is not correct, for a 
complete form is used instead of a general form. 

§ 115, Beware, ought, quoth, wit, and think in the 
sense of seem are defective. 

Beware is used only in the infinitive, and in imperative 
sentences. Ought is past in form (from owe) but is 
used either as present or past. Quoth is used only in 
the past tense. Wit is used only in the infinitive. 
Think is used only in the present tense, third person 
singular, preceded by me ; as, Methinks I see him now. 
The subject of thinks is the following sentence. The 
meaning is It seems to me that 1 see him now. In this 
latter sentence it stands for the sentence following 
seems. This verb think is not from the same root as the 
verb think which means to have thoughts. 



COMMON SCHOOL COTTKSE. 



119 



LESSON XXV. 

§ 110. The principal parts of weak verbs are easily 
formed from the theme. The variety of vowel changes 
in the Strong Verb renders it necessary to give a list of 
them. 

Regular Strong Conjugation. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Be, 


(was,) 


been. 


Bid, 


bade, 


bidden, or bid. 


Chide, 


chid (obs. chode). 


, chidden, or chid. 


Come, 


came, 


come (obs. comen), 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Eat, 


ate, or eat, 


eaten, or eat. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


(went), 


gone. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, or hid. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, or holden. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden, or rode. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 117. Verbs whose Past Participle is formed from 
the Past Tense by adding n, or is the same as the Past. 



Bear, 


bore, or bare, 


borne, or born. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound, or bounden. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, or beat. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Cling, 
Feed, 


clung, 
fed, 


clung. 
fed. 


Fight, 
Find, 


fought, 
found, 


fought (foughten). 
found. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Get, 
Lead, 


got, 
led, 


got, or gotten, 
led. 


Lie, 
Meet, 


lay, 

met, 


lain, 
met. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Ring, 
Run, 


rung, or rang, 
ran, 


rung, 
run. 


Shoot, 

Shrink, 

Sit, 

Sling, 

Slink, 


shot, 

shrank, 

sat, 

slung, 

slunk, 


shot (shotten). 
shrunk (shrunken), 
sat (sitten). 
slung, 
slunk. 


Speak, 
Spin, 


spoke (spake), 
spun (span), 


spoken, 
spun. 


Spring, 
Stand, 


sprang, or sprung 
stood, 


, sprung, 
stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 

stunk (stank), 


stung, 
stunk. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



121 



Strike, 




struck (strake), 


struck (stricken). 


Swing, 




swung, 


swung. 


Tear, 




tore, 


torn. 


Tread, 




trod, 


trod (trodden). 


Wear, 




wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 




move, 


woven. 


Win, 




won, 


won. 


The forms 


in 


parentheses are 


obsolete, or are used 


only as adjectives. 





§ 118. The following have different vowels in the 
three different principal parts : 

Begin, began, begun. 

Drink, drank, drunk (drunken). 

Fly, flew, flown. 

Sing, sang, or sung, sung. 

Sink, sank, or sunk, sunk (sunken). 

Swim, swam, or swum, swum. 

§ 119. The following verbs make all their principal 
parts alike: Beat, beset, bestead, cast, cost, cut, hit, 
hurt, let, put, rid, set, shed, shut, shred, spit, thrust. 

The following are of the weak conjugation, but con- 
tract their forms, or change them for euphony. The past 
participle is the same as the past tense. Make drops h 
before d. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


Feel, 


felt. 


Lose, 


lost. 


Have, 


had. 


Make, 


made. 


Hear, 


heard. 


Pay, 


paid. 


Keep, 


kept. 


Rend, 


rent. 


Lay, 


laid. 


Say, 


said. 


Lend, 
6 


lent. 


Shoe, 


shod. 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Many verbs not given in this list contract ed in t / as, 
blest, built, gilt, past, for blessed, builded, gilded, passed. 

Verbs of the mixed conjugation change the vowel 
and add d or t in the past tense : Bring, brought ; 
buy, bought ; do, did, (strong participle done ;) seek, 
sought; sell, sold; teach, taught; think, thought. 

REDUNDANT VERBS. 

§ 120. A verb is redundant when it has double 
forms for any of its parts. Some examples have already 
been given. Many verbs once strong are weak in com- 
mon use, but retain their strong forms in poetry. The 
following are among the more common redundant verbs : 
Awake, awoke, or awaked, awaked, or awoke. 

Cleave, cleaved, or clave, 

(to adhere to), 
Cleave, clove, or cleft, 

(to split), 
Clothe, clothed, or clad, 

Dare, dared, or durst, 

Hang, hung, or hanged, 

Heave, heaved, or hove, 

Light, lighted, or lit, 

Saw, sawed, 

Seethe, seethed, or sod, 

Shine, shone, or shined, 

Wind, winded, or wound, 

Work, w r orked, or wrought, worked, or wrought, 

DERIVATION OP VERBS. 

§ 121. Verbs are derived from adjectives and nouns 
by adding the ending en. Such verbs signify to make 
or to do that which is implied in the primitive. Thus 
widen means to make wide; lengthen, to make long. 
Let the pupil give further examples. 



cleaved. 

cleft, or cloven, 

clothed, or clad, 
dared, or durst, 
hung, or hanged, 
heaved, or hoven, 
lighted, or lit, 
sawed, or sawn, 
seethed, or sodden, 
shone, or shined, 
winded, or wound, 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 123 

Verbs are derived from nouns by a change of accent. 

The accent of the verb conies on the final syllable. 
Nouns, ob'ject, cem'ent, sur'vey, transport, cou'sort. 
Verbs, object', cement/ survey', transport', consort'. 
Let the pupil add to this list, which contains 150 words. 

Verbs are derived from nouns by changing a non-so- 
nant consonant into the corresponding sonant. 
Noun. life, breath, cloth, grief, glass, use. 
Verb. live, breathe, clothe, grieve, glaze, use. 

Verbs are derived from Latin roots by adding fy, 
signifying to make. Thus, amplify means to make 
ample ; glorify to make glorious / certify to make cer- 
tain. 

The ending ize with Greek and Latin roots has some- 
times the same meaning ; as, realize, to make real ; 
Anglicize, to make English, or to give an English form 
or accent. 

A few strong intransitive verbs form weak 
transitive verbs by a change of vowel ; as, lie, 
lay ; fall, fell ; rise, raise ; drink, drench. 

RECAPITULATION OF THE VERB. 

§ 133. The Verb has two conjugations, 
the weak and the strong $ two simple tenses, 
the present and the past $ two substan- 
tives, the infinitive and the gerund 5 two 
adjective forms, the imperfect and the per- 
fect participles 5 two voices, the active 
and the passive. 

It has also an Emphatic form, and a Pro- 
gressive form, and forms which denote tbe /•- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

son and number of the subject. It has also an 
obsolescent Subjunctive mode. In form 
verbs are regular or irregular 5 complete, 
defective, or redundant. In respect to com- ' 
piemen t, they are transitive or intransitive. 
The Compound forms are made up of the 
verbs be, have, do, may, can, must, shall 
and will, with their infinitive and adjective 
complements. 

LESSON XXVI. 

THE PRONOUN. 

§ 123. A Pronoun is a word used in place 
of a substantive, which admits only adjective 
modifiers, and can stand in any relation in 
which a noun can stand. 

Adjectives are sometimes used in place of nouns, but do not 
admit the modifiers of nouns. 

The substantive for which the pronoun stands 
is called the antecedent of the pronoun. It 
may be a noun, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. 

Antecedent means going before, but the substantive for which a 
pronoun stands often comes after it, or is unknown. When we 
ask " Who did it ? " we use a pronoun for an unknown noun. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes, Per- 
sonal, Relative and Interrogative. 

Personal pronouns are those which indicate 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 125 

the grammatical person of the noun for which 
they stand. 

I is the pronoun of the first person ; thou, of 
the second person; he, of the third singular, 
masculine ; she of the third singular, feminine ; 
it of the third singular, neuter. 

The pronouns of the first and second person have no gender. 

§ 124. The pronouns are irregular in declen 
sion, and are thus declined : 

SINGULAR. 

Subject, I, thou, he, she, it, 

Possessive, my, or mine, thy, or thine, his, her, or hers, its, 
me, thee, him, her, it, 



PLURAL. 

Subject, we, you, or ye, they, \ 

Possessive, our, or ours, your, or yours, their, or theirs, V ^ m VJ 
Objective, us. you. them. ) 

The plural we is sometimes used by editors or public 
speakers, as if they were speaking for a number of per- 
sons ; as, We are informed, etc. This is called the plural 
of modesty. Kings also use the plural in their edicts, 
as if they embodied in themselves the will of a nation ; 
as, It is out royal pleasure. This is called the plural of 
majesty. 

Thou is used in poetry and in addressing the Deity, 
and in common discourse by some religious sects ; as 
by the Friends. You is used in addressing a single 
person, but takes its verb in the plural; as, you to ere ; 
never, you was. Ye in the nominative is retained in 
solemn style and in poetry. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The second forms of the possessive are used when the 
name denoting the thing possessed is omitted ; as, 
yours is better than mine. Mine and thine were for- 
merly used for euphony before a word beginning with a 
vowel; as, mine eyes. Compare the use of an and a. 
In such a phrase as, A brother of mine, mine seems to be 
used instead of me. 

Its is of recent introduction. It does not appear in 
the common version of the Bible published in 1611. 
His was employed in its place ; as, the altar and his 
vessels. 

It stands as the subject of the verb be followed by a 
substantive of either gender or number; as, It is they; 
It is the French ; It was she. 

It often stands as the subject of a verb whose real 
subject is a sentence, an infinitive, or a clause following 
the verb. It is then redundant, or unnecessary to the 
construction, and may be omitted by transposing the 
sentence. 

It is no light thing to violate onds conscience. 

It is not strange that he is ashamed of his conduct. 

It is difficult to hear him distinctly. 

By transposing these sentences, it may be omitted ; 
as, to hear him distinctly is difficult. 

It is sometimes used indefinitely ; as, It rains ; it 
thunders. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§126. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, 
ourself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, and them- 
selves, are called Compound Personal Pro- 
nouns. They are used in two senses. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 127 

1. To make emphatic a preceding substantive 
which they modify ; as, The king himself ; I my- 
self. 

2. After a transitive verb ; to denote that the 
action terminates upon the subject ; as, I have 
hurt myself. That child will kill itself. They 
are then said to be used reflexiz 



Beflex means turn back ; the pronoun turns back our thought to 
the subject. 

Rarely a compound j:>ersonal pronoun is used alone as 
the subject of a sentence ; as, Thyself shall see the act. 



LESSON XXVII. 

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§137. The pronouns, who, which, what, 

that, and as, besides supplying the place of a 
substantive, perform the office of a connective, 
and join an adjective clause to the substantive 
which it modifies. When so used they are 
called Relative Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking a 
question, are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

The chief difference between the pronouns is in the 
position of the antecedent, which stands before the pro- 
noun in case of the relative, and in case of the inter- 
rogative in the answer of the question. The relative 
has usually a definite antecedent ; the interrogative has 
often an indefinite antecedent. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Wlio is the only word of either class which is always 
a pronoun. It applies only to persons, or to things per- 
sonified ; as, The man who. 

Which, formerly used of persons, is now used only of 
things. It is properly a specifying adjective, and often 
is followed by a noun. In the expression " Our Father 
which art in heaven " we have the old use of the pro- 
noun. Modern use requires "wAoart." Whenever in 
questions which is used of persons, a noun is always im- 
plied after it; as, which (man) was it? 

TJiat, also a specifying adjective, may refer either to 
persons or things; as, The men that/ or, The words 
that. 

§ 1S8. What, as a relative, is never used when the 
antecedent is expressed before it. It is often indefinite. 
It can always be treated as a specifying adjective. It 
often stands at the beginning of a question which is the 
object of a verb, and should then be called an interroga- 
tive. 

Ex. — He gave me what money he had. What is a 
specifying adjective. 

Tell me what you saw. What is interrogative and 
indefinite. It may mean what persons, what sights, 
what goods, or any thing else. The noun things may be 
u>ed after it. The clause ichat you saw is the object of 
tell, and is called an indirect question. 

This is what I wanted. The clause what I wanted is 
the complement of is. The indefinite antecedent of 
what is omitted. What is the object of wanted ; or, if 
it be called a specifying adjective, it modifies an omitted 
noun. If an antecedent is expressed, what is changed 
to which ; the indefinite form to the definite. 

Sometimes the antecedent what is expressed in the 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 129 

following clause ; as, What I tell you in darkness, that 
speak ye in light. 

No greater absurdity was ever taught than the statement that 
what is a compound relative, equivalent to that which, and used in 
two relations. An ellipsis in a sentence does not affect the use of 
the words which remain. 

As is a relative pronoun when it introduces an adjec- 
tive clause after many, much, same and such ; as, This 
is the same as you saw last week. As many as I love, 
I rebuke and chasten. 

§ 129. The pronoun who has the possessive form 
whose, and the objective form whom. The plural is like 
the singular. Which is not declined, but borrows the 
possessive whose ; as, The tree whose top was broken. 
The other relatives have only one form. 

Wliich admits a sentence, or something implied in a 
sentence, as an antecedent ; as, He lost his money, 
which made him insane. Money is not the antecedent 
of the relative : it is the fact of losing money. Supply 
loss in the clause, and it will read, which loss rendered 
him insane. Which then becomes a specifying adjec- 
tive. 

§ 130. The relative pronouns who, ichich and what 
become indefinite by the addition of so, ever and soever / 
as, whoso, whoever, whosoever. The antecedent of an 
indefinite pronoun is, of course, generally omitted. Who 
is sometimes used indefinitely. 

Whoever comes shall be welcomed. Who breaks, 
pays. 

Whoso offereth praise glorifieth me. 

Notice that the omitted antecedent is the subject of 
the sentence, and that the relative is the subject of an 
adjective clause. If the antecedent were expressed, it 
6* 



130 English grammar. 

would be indefinite, and a definite relative would be 
used ; as, Any one who comes, etc. 

What is sometimes an adverb in the sense of partly ; 
as, what with running, and what with shouting, my 
breath was spent. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

§ 131. Certain specifying adjectives are so often used 
without a noun following them, that they are sometimes 
called pronouns. What, which and that are examples. 
They are not strictly pronouns, but may be called Pro- 
t&ominal adjectives. Their number is not fixed, be- 
cause the classification depends principally upon the 
frequency of their use. This and that (plural, these 
and those) are called Demonstratives. They have the 
same root as the, but are more emphatic. This refers 
to the nearer ; that to the more remote. 

Each, every, either, neither and other are called Dis- 
tributives. 

Each is used of any number taken one by one; as, 
Each of you shall have a share. 

Every is more emphatic than each, and is used of any 
number more than two. 

Either, neither and other are used of one of two. The 
ending er is comparative, and they should not be used 
of more than two. Instead of saying, Either of the 
three, say, Any one of the three. 

All, another, both, few, former, latter, many, much, 
none, one, own, same, several, and such are generally 
classed as pronominal adjectives. One admits a com- 
plete declension, and might be called an indefinite per- 
sonal pronoun. Both applies to two taken together. 

§ 132. Each other and one another are called 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 131 

Reciprocals. Each other is used when two are spoken 
of; one another is used of any number larger than two. 
They admit of declension, and add the declension end- 
ings to the last word. 

They were beating each other, means, They each (of 
the two) were beating the other. 

Little children, love one another ; that is, do you each 
one love another, any other, or, all the others. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ IBS. The Adjective is a word which modi- 
fies or limits a substantive by naming some quality 
or attribute ; or by pointing out which, or how 
many are meant. It can form a part of the 
predicate, but can never be a subject. 

There are three kinds of adjectives. 

1. Descriptive Adjectives, or Names of 
Qualities. 

p 2. Specifying Adjectives, which point out 
which are meant. 

3. Numeral Adjectives, which denote Num- 
ber. 

Descriptive adjectives are divided into Variable and 
Invariable. Variable adjectives name qualities which 
vary in degree ; as, sour, costly, large, small. Invari- 
able adjectives name qualities which can not be varied 
in degree ; as, golden, square, triangular. 

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

are commenced with a capital letter ; as Websterian 
intellect, Socratic method. After long and frequent use 
such adjectives may become common ; as martial, sten- 
torian. 

Material adjectives denote the material of which 
any thing is made ; sometimes that which it resembles. 
They are derived from nouns by adding en ; as golden, 
flaxen, leaden, brazen, (from brass. Notice the con- 
sonant change.) A noun is often used instead of a 
material adjective ; as iron chains, steel bolts, silver 
cord. 

§ 134. Specifying adjectives include a, an, 
and the, the pronominal adjectives, and a few 
others. 

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds. 

1. Cardinals, which are used in counting, 
and answer the question. How many ? as, one, 
twelve, twenty. 

2. Ordinals, which denote which one in 
order, either in time or in place ; as first, fifth, 
ninth. 

3. Multiplicatives, which denote the num- 
ber taken together, or the number of parts which 
make up the whole ; as, two-fold, fourfold, single, 
fri%>le. 

One by one, two by two, etc., are called distributive 
numerals. 

A verbal adjective (§95) is derived from a verb by 
inflection, and admits verbal modifiers. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 133 

§ 135. The only inflection which the adjective ad- 
mits is Comparison. (Except a few specifying adjec- 
tives.) 

Comparison is an inflection of certain variable adjec- 
tives to denote the degree of the quality. 

The Theme of the adjective is the ordinary name of 
the quality, and is called the Positive degree; as, black, 
cool. 

The Sub-positive degree is formed from the Positive 
by the ending ish ; as, blackish, coolish. The ending 
ish means like, or resembling, and is often added to 
nouns to form adjectives; as, wolfish, clownish. 

The Comparative degree is the form of the adjec- 
tive, which, besides naming the quality, compares two 
objects in respect to the quality. Its ending is er; as, 
He is older than I ; blacker than night. 

The Superlative degree is that form of the adjective 
which compares the quality of one object with that of 
two or more other objects; as, the wisest of his sect; 
the bravest of the brave. Its ending is est. 

Monosyllabic descriptive adjectives, and a few dissyl- 
lables admit the inflection of comparison. Other varia- 
ble adjectives are compared by adverbial modification. 
The adverbs somewhat and rather give nearly the 
equivalent of the ending ish; more corresponds to the 
ending er, most to the ending est. Less and least give a 
comparison of decrease, making the positive a starting- 
point; as, common, less common, least common. 

§ 136. Comparison of adjectives. 

SUBPOSITIVE. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Sweetish, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

lovely, lovelier, loveliest. 

Somewhat famous, famous, more famous, most famous. 



134 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rapid, 



Good, 
Bad, \ 
Evil, C 
111, ) 
Much, } 
Many, j 
Near, 
Late, 
Old, 
Far, 
Little, 



BY DIMINUTION. 



less rapid, 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



least rapid. 



better, 



best. 



worst. 



most. 



nearest, or next, 
latest, or last, 
oldest, or eldest, 
farthest, or furthest, 
least. 



nearer, 

later, or latter, 
older, or elder, 
farther, or further, 
less, 

3fuch denotes quantity, and is singular ; many denotes 
number, and is plural. Later and latest are used only 
of time ; latter and last of either time, or place. Elder 
and eldest are now used only of persons. 

Specifying, numeral, and material adjectives are inva- 
riable. All nouns used as adjectives are invariable, 
though some may be modified by adverbs. 

The adjectives junior, senior, major, minor, interior, 
exterior, prior, posterior, anterior, and superior are Latin 
comparatives. 

Some adjectives take most as a superlative ending, 
instead of prefixing it as an adverb ; as, foremost, hind- 
most. 



§ 137. In analyzing a sentence the degree of an 
adjective need not be mentioned, unless it is expressed 
by the ending. The modification by adverbs does not 
differ from any other modification. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 135 

The adjective of whatever class usually stands before 
its noun. Except when it is modified by an adjunct 
following; as, an agreeable man; a man agreeable in 
manner. 

Some adjectives, mostly compounds of a, can be used 
only in the predicate / as, asleep, alive, awake. 

Some adjectives which are really invariable are com- 
pared by way of emphasis, or because we do not use 
words in their exact meaning. We say, the house is 
fuller than usual to-night, meaning more nearly full. 
But, of course, if it were full it could not be more than 
full. So we say that one ball is rounder than another; 
that is, it comes nearer to a globular shape. 

§ 138. The specifying adjectives an or a, and the 

are often called articles. 

An is the same as one, and any is closely allied in 
meaning. Before a consonant sound n is dropped for 
euphony. As an is singular, it can only be used before 
a noun in the singular. The has the same root as this 
and that. It is used with nouns of either number. 

An is used in general statements, indefinitely; the of 
something definitely known ; as, I saw a man (indefinite) 
passing. In a moment I saw the man (definite) turn 
back, etc. 

Often an and the differ principally in emphasis. 

An honest man's the noblest work of God. 

The honest man's the noblest work of God. 

In the expressions the more, the better, the is an 
adverb. 

Certain numerals, as hundred, thousand, are used as 
collective nouns in the singular, and admit the article 
an/ as, a thousand (of) men. 

In such expressions as many a time, the phrase many 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a has a distributive force, and can agree with a singular 
noun. 

LESSON XXIX. 

THE ADVERB. 

§ 139. The Adverb is a word whose office is 
to modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. 
It rarely modifies prepositions, and frequently 
serves as a connective. 

Its name means added to a verb^ and it stands in the 
same relation to the verb that the adjective does to the 
noun ; so that all modifiers of the verb are sometimes 
called, collectively, adverbial modifiers. 

A few adverbs admit the inflection of compari§on, 
and are compared like adjectives; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest. 

The following adverbs are irregular in comparison; 
Well, better, best; ill, much and little, whose adverbial 
forms are the same as the adjective forms already given 
(§ 136) ; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest. 

Adverbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, pro- 
nouns and prepositions. 

Many words are either adjectives or adverbs accord- 
ing to the connection. They are often interchanged in 
poetry, either for rhyme or for meter. 

ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. 

Much gold, Much worse, 

The farther side, They went farther. 

The still hour. He fared still better. 

§ 14=0. Many adverbs are derived from descriptive 
adjectives by adding ly ; as, brave/y, earnest^/, know- 
ingly. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 13V 

Some adverbs are compounded of a preposition and 
its subsequent; as, indeed, instead. 

A series of adverbs derived from pronouns deserves 
special notice. 

The pronoun he was once a specifying adjective with 
the force of this. From its root h, from the demonstra- 
tive root th, and the relative and interrogative root wh, 
are formed a series of adverbs with corresponding end- 
ings and meanings. 

Root h, here, hence, hither, (obsolete heix). 
Root th, there, thence, thither, then. 

Root wh, where, whence, whither, when, why. 

Here = in or at this place. Hence = from this place. 
There = in or at that place. Thence = from that place. 
Where = in or at which or Whence = from which or 

what place. what place. 

Hither = to this place. Why = for what reason. 

Thither = to that place. Then = at that time. 
Whither = to what place. When = at which or what 

time. 

§ 141. As these adverbs are closely related to pro- 
nouns, they are frequently used as the subsequents of 
prepositions, and may be called pronouns ; as, 

Till then, I boast a Saviour slain. 

Where are you going to ? (Better, Whither are you 
going ?) 

They departed from thence. (Better, They departed 
thence, but good usage admits the preposition.) 

" For why ? his owner had a house." 

These adverbs are compounded with several preposi- 
tions; as, hereof ', thereat, wherein, hitherto. The com- 
pounds with of are adjective modifiers, and may be 
treated as adjuncts, calling the first part of the com- 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pound a pronoun. Thereof was formerly used as the 
possessive of it (§ 124) ; as, Gaza and the villages there- 
of. Whereof was used instead of of what or of ichich; 
as, The country whereof ye spake. Thereof and where- 
of are adjective modifiers of substantives, and may be 
called adjectives, or separated into the preposition and 
its subsequent, calling the first part a pronoun. 

§142. The principal relations denoted by 
adverbs are, maimer, time, place, direc- 
tion, degree, and number. Besides these 
there are inodaE adverbs which modify the 
assertion ; and adverbial connectives. 

Adverbs of Manner answer the question How? as, 
well, nobly, skillfully. 

Adverbs of Place are sub-divided into those of 

1. Place in which; as, here, yonder, hereabouts, 

2. Place from which ; as, thence, away, forth. 

3. Place to which ; as, homeward, ashore, thither. 

Adverbs of Time include those which denote 

1. Time present; as, now, to-day, yet, now-a-days. 

2. Time past ; as, already, yesterday, formerly. 

3. Time future ; as, to-nxorroio, hereafter, henceforth. 

4. Time in general ; as, always, forever, aye. 

5. Time repeated ; as, often, once, thrice, usually. 

Adverbs of Degree are divided into 

1. Adverbs of abundance or excess ; as, greatly, to- 
tally, fully, altogether. 

2. Adverbs of equality or sufficiency ; as, enough, 
precisely, so, as, even, quite. 

3. Adverbs of deficiency; as, less, hardly, scarcely, 
partly. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 139 

Adverbs of number may be referred to Time repeated 
and Place in order. 

Modal adverbs modify the assertion, and may be 

1. Emphatic ; as, verily, certainly, indeed. 

2. Affirmative ; as, yes, (obsolete yea), which modifies 
either a preceding verb, or a sentence following. 

3. Negative; as, no (used in modifying like yes), not, 
nowise, nay. 

4. Doubtful ; as, perhaps, possibly, perchance. 
Adverbial connectives are adverbs which connect a 

clause to a sentence. They are generally derived from 
the relative pronoun ; as, why, wherefore, when. They 
modify the verb of the clause. Occasionally they have 
an antecedent adverb in the principal clause ; as, 

Then shall we know, when Christ shall come. Often 
the antecedent is a noun ; as, at the time when (at which) 
kings go out to war. 

§ 143. The adverb and the preposition are closely 
related, and a preposition without a subsequent is 
usually an adverb. 

It is the usage of the language that the subject should 
stand before the predicate. We noticed in § 125 that 
when a sentence is the subject, it often precedes the 
verb, so that it may not stand without an apparent sub- 
ject. The adverb there is used in the same way before 
the verb be/ as, There were many. There is no doubt. 
There will be a shower. This sounds less abrupt than, 
A shower will be, No doubt is. 

Words used for sound, and not affecting the sense are 
called Expletives. There as used above is a good ex- 
ample. It is said to be used expletlvely, and has no 
modifying power. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXX. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 144. A Preposition is a word whose office 
is to connect a substantive with a word which is 
modified by the preposition and the following 
substantive in a manner denoted by the prep- 
osition. 

The word preposition means placed before, because 
the preposition stands before the substantive. The sub- 
stantive which follows is called the subsequent of the 
preposition. The preposition and its subsequent are 
together called an adjunct. The preposition is called 
the base of the adjunct. 

A pronoun used as a subsequent of a preposition has 
the objective form. 

To the list of prepositions given in § 34, the following 
may be added : 



aboard, 


athwart, 


ere, 


throughout, 




amidst, 


besides, 


out, 


underneath, 




amongst, 


betwixt, 


round, 


unto, 


within. 


Some of 


the above 


are only 


different forms of the 


prepositions given befoi 


•e. All prepositions are 


of Saxon 


origin. 











§ 145. The following are prepositions less fre- 
quently used. Those in italics are borrowed from for- 
eign languages, and are not fully recognized as good 
English : 

A (as a-fishing), abaft, adown, afore, aslant, astride, 
despite, inside, maugre, minxes, outside, per, plus, sans, 
versus, via. 



COMMON SCHOOL COUKSE. 141 

Save, and except, which are really elliptical impera- 
tive sentences, are sometimes called prepositions. 

Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstand- 
ing, past, pending, respecting and touching, which are 
imperfect participles, are incorrectly called prepositions. 

For the use of the participle in such a phrase as " Dur- 
ing the war," see §52 and § 176. The tendency is to 
make these words prepositions, although their form and 
their derivation are opposed to this use. 

§ 146. The adjectives like, near, nigh and opposite 
are sometimes absurdly called prepositions, because the 
following preposition is often omitted ; as, like him. 

Prepositions are sometimes compounded or doubled ; 
as, Come out from among them ; From beyond Jordan. 
The subsequent of the first preposition is the following 
adjunct. Some prefer to supply a noun for the first 
preposition ; as, From the land beyond Jordan. In 
such compounds as out of, out from, over against, the 
first word is an adverb. 

A preposition and its subsequent denote the relation 
of place more frequently than any other, and very sel- 
dom modify a noun. 

Between (by twain or by two) requires or implies two 
subsequents; as, between you and me/ Between us. 
If more than two are implied in the subsequent, among 
should be used instead of both. 

§ 147, The preposition is often compounded with 
the verb, adding its own meaning to that of the verb ; 
as, undergo. Intransitive verbs often become transitive 
when compounded with a preposition ; as, 
Intransitive, live, stand, look, leap, 

Transitive. outlive, understand, overlook, overleap. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sometimes the preposition is incorporated with the 
verb in meaning, but not by position ; as, They went by 
the house. By is joined to the verb in sense ; not to the 
noun. Compare, They went by water, where by is a 
preposition. 

He brought up a family ; He is well spoken of ; He 
gave up his situation, are other examples of a preposi- 
tion compounded with a verb. 

Two prepositions are sometimes used with one sub- 
sequent ; as, Our acquaintance with and mastery of 
English. Better, Our acquaintance with English and 
our mastery of it. 

The subsequent of a preposition may be an entire 
clause ; as, 

Ere the blue heavens were stretched abroad. 

Till the work was finished. 



LESSON XXXI. 

THE CONJUNCTION AND THE EXCLAMATION. 

§148. The Conjunction is that part of 
speech whose office is to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

The Conjunction forms no part of the sen- 
tence in which it stands, and has no modifying 
power. Its meaning determines the relation in 
which the terms connected stand to each other. 

Adverbs and relative pronouns may connect clauses 
to sentences, but do not connect words, nor independ- 
ent sentences. 

Words connected by conjunctions are usually of the 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 143 

same part of speech, and in the same relation in the sen- 
tence ; as, Samuel or Robert will come and help you. 

§ 14:0. The following lists contain the common con- 
junctions : 

1. Pure conjunctions, or words used only to connect. 
Although, and, because, if, lest, nevertheless, nor, or, 
than, though, unless, whereas, whether. 

2. Conjunctions or prepositions. But, for, since. 

3. Conjunctions, or adverbs. Also, as, even, then, yet. 

4. Conjunctions, or adjectives. Both, either, neither, 
that. 

Conjunctions are classified into 

1. Co-ordinate, which connect words in the same 
relation, or sentences in the same form ; as, 

Art is long, and time is fleeting. 

2. Subordinate, which connect a clause to a princi- 
pal sentence, making the sentence complex ; as, This 
work will be done, if you will do your part. 

§ loO. The following are the principal meanings 
expressed by conjunctions : 

1. Addition ; as, The blind and dumb both spake 
and saw. Conjunctions connecting terms in the same 
relation, and to be considered together, are called Copu- 
lative. 

2. Separation ; as, Take one or the other. Either 
you are mistaken, or I am. These conjunctions imply 
a choice between two, and are called Disjunctive. 

3. exposition, or Contrast ; as, lie is rich, but 
economical; lie was defeated, yet he persevered. 

4. Cause ; as, The wall fell, because the stream under- 
mined it. This dependent clause is called a Causal 
clause. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Conclusion ; as, He is innocent, therefore he is 
confident. Then is often used instead of therefore. 

6. Purpose ; as, He came that he might receive his 
commission. Instead of a clause with that, an infinitive 
is often used ; as, He came to receive. 

7. Condition ; as, If you wish, you can have it. 

8. Concession ; as, Though he slay me, yet will I 
trust in him. 

9. Comparison ; as, He learns faster than I. He is 
as strong as a lion. 

Comparison of difference is denoted by than ; com- 
parison of equality by as. As often connects a noun to 
another noun which modifies it; as, He sent him as 
ambassador. 

§ lol. Conjunctions are often used correlatively • 
that is, if one conjunction is used in the first member of 
two terms connected, the other is employed in the 

second. The principal correlatives are both and, 

either or, whether or, neither nor, if 

then, though yet, or still. 

If the first of one of these pairs is used in the first 
member, its correlative must be used in the second. 
"Neither the one or the other " is not correct, because 
neither requires the correlative nor. The first of the 
correlatives is often omitted. 

When two connectives come together, there is usually 
a transposition, or an ellipsis of some clause. 

And if it be true, why do you fear ? 

And why do you fear, if it be true ? 

In the first of the above, the two conjunctions and 
and if come together. By transposing the sentence, 
they are separated and brought in their proper order, and 
connecting the complex sentence to some preceding sen- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 145 

tence, and if connecting the clause to the interrogative 
sentence. 

It was parted as if by an earthquake's shock. It 
was parted as (it would be) if (parted) by an earth- 
quake shock. 

Some prefer to call as if a compound connective. 

THE EXCLAMATION. 

§ 152. The Exclamation is that part of 
speech which is used to express emotion or 
feeling, without forming any part of the . sen- 
tence. 

Other words which express emotion and feeling form 
a part of the sentence ; the exclamation stands usually 
entirely alone. 

Exclamations express sorrow; as, ah, alas; Sur- 
prise ; as, ha, whew ; Contempt ; as, fudge, pshaw, 
pooh ; Aversion ; as, fie, faugh ; Exultation ; as, 
huzza, hurrah / L<augnter ; as, ha, ha y Interroga- 
tive ; as, eh ? hey f Weariness ; as, heigh ho. 

Words used in calling or driving animals ; as, whoa, 
haio, gee, are classed as exclamations. 



LESSON XXXII. 



§ 153. Syntax is that part of Grammar 
which treats of the Sentence, and of the rela- 
tions, modifications, and arrangement of words 
in sentences. 



146 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Sentence is the complete expression of 
a thought by means of words. 

The expression of a thought involves, at least, 
three things. 

1. Some subject of thought. 

2. Some idea which is connected with the 
subject. 

3. Some word which expresses the connection 
of the first and second ideas. 

Thus if one has the idea of glass, and connects with 
it in his mind the idea of brittleness, he expresses the 
connection of the two ideas by a word which asserts ; 
as, glass is brittle. 

The second idea may take an assertive form, 
or two ideas may be expressed in one word ; as, 
trees grow. 

The first idea is that of trees, the second, of growth, 
and the word grow asserts the second idea of the first. 
A sentence must contain two words. 

§ 154. The Subject of a sentence is that of 
which something is asserted. 

The Predicate of a sentence is that which 
is asserted of the subject. 

The Elements of a sentence are the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject of a sentence is a substantive, 
either with or without modifiers. The predicate 
is a verb either modified or unmodified. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 147 

A thought may be expressed as a declaration 
of the belief, or the purpose of the speaker, as a 
question, as a command, or as an exclamation. 
The word assert is used to express any one of 
these forms of communicating thought. 

There are four kinds of sentences ; Declara- 
tive, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex- 
clamatory. (See § 58, 59.) 

A declarative sentence is called a Proposi- 
tion. A general proposition has no limit, 
or modification ; as, Fire burns. Iron is heavy. 

A limited proposition is restricted to bounds 
defined by limiting words ; as, This fire burns 
well. 

The affirmation of the last sentence is restricted to 
one specified fire, and bums is modified by an adverb 
of manner. 

§ 155. Any word which limits the application, 
explains the meaning, or completes the sense of 
another word, is said to modify that word. 
My Newfoundland dog likes to swim. 

This assertion is limited; it is made of but one doe:, 
and the word dog has two modifiers, one telling what 
kind of dog, and the other to whom the dog belongs. 
Ziikes has a modifier completing its meaning, telling 
what the dog likes. 

The Simple subject is the substantive with- 
out modifiers ; the Simple predicate is the verb 
without modifiers. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The logical subject and predicate are the 
simple subject and predicate with their respect- 
ive modifiers. 

The honest man who found the purse restored 
it without delay to the owner. 

The simple subject of the above is man, the simple 
predicate is restored. The logical subject is the honest 
man who found the purse; the logical predicate is 
restored it without delay to the owner. 

§156. A Simple sentence has one subject 
and one predicate. 

A compound sentence is made up of simple 
sentences combined. It can be separated into 
simple sentences. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, 
may be made compound; as, John and James 
read and write. 

A Clause contains the elements of a sentence, 
but does not make complete sense. It is always 
used as a modifier. 

A Complex sentence contains a clause as a 
modifier ; as, They also serve who only stand 
and wait. 

A sentence may be both compound and complex. A 
complex sentence may contain several clauses, either in 
the subject or in the predicate. 

An Independent sentence makes sense by 
itself; a dependent sentence is the same as a 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 149 

Clause. That member of a Complex sentence 
which is modified by the rest is called the prin- 
cipal, or leading sentence ; as, He said that he 
would go. He said is the leading sentence, 
though it is not complete ; that he would go is a 
dependent sentence. 

A Phrase is any number of words in proper 
order not forming a sentence or a clause. 

Phrases are named from their office ; as, adverbial 
phrases, adjective phrases ; or, from some leading word, 
as, a prepositional phrase, a participal phrase. 

The Analysis of a sentence is the naming of 
the elements of their sentence with the modifiers. 

Parsing is verbal analysis ; the naming of 
the several parts of speech, with the relation 
which each word has in the sentence. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

MODIFIERS OF THE NOUN. 

§ 157. The Noun admits of five kinds of 
modifiers ; the Appositive, the Possessive, the 
Adjective, the Adjunct, and the Clause. 

A noun or pronoun annexed to a substantive 
to define it, explain it, or make it emphatic, is 
called an Appositive, or is said to be in Appo- 
sition; as, Mr. Miller the merchant,' Long- 
fellow the poet; The king himself could do 
no more. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The appositive usually stands after the word which it 
modifies, and is in the same case (§ 92) as the modified 
word. It is often equivalent in meaning to an adjective 
clause; as, Napoleon, the first emperor; or, Napoleon 
who was first emperor. 

The different words which make up a Complex noun 
may be regarded as appositives, and when the posses- 
sive relation is to be expressed by a noun modified by 
an appositive, the 's is annexed to the last word ; as, 
King Richard's crown ; Allen the bookseller's store. 

The appositive is sometimes connected with the noun 
by the conjunction as; as, I gave him a ball as his 
birthday present. 

Instead of a noun in apposition, an adjunct with the 
preposition can sometimes be employed; as, the city 
Boston, or, the city of Boston. 

The whole is often modified by its parts in apposition 
with it ; as, They went in haste ; some to the field, some 
to the garden, some to the forest. 

A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence or 
something implied in it; as, I must tell the whole truth ; 
a painful duty. The truth that all men are created 
equal is self-evident. 

The pronoun it is often in apposition with a clause, 
sentence, or phrase following the verb of which it is the 
subject (§ 125). It is a good thing to give thanks. 

A substantive used in apposition to two or more 
nouns must be in the plural ; as, Helen and Mary, pupils 
in the same school. 

§ 158. A noun or pronoun in the Possessive 
Case limits the noun denoting the thing pos- 
sessed ; as, his book. Mary's slate. Achilles* 
shield. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 151 

Adjectives of all kinds, including articles, 
pronominal, verbal, descriptive, specifying, and 
numeral adjectives, modify nouns. 

An adjective may be the complement of a 
verb, and is then said to refer to the subject, but 
does not modify or limit it. 

The grass is green. The grass grows green, looks 
green, becomes green. 

Green, in the above, is a quality or attribute of grass, 
but in each case the quality is asserted, and the subject 
is not modified. 

A participle standing in an abridged proposition (§52, 
§ 175) may be said to refer to the noun which would be 
the subject of the clause, if it were not elliptical. 

Adjectives which imply the singular idea, like an, one, 
each, either, should be used only with nouns in the sin- 
gular number; those which are plural in meaning, like 
both, these, many, should be used only with nouns in the 
plural number. 

The adjective properly stands before the noun which 
it modifies. The pronoun does not admit the adjective 
before it. 

The specifying adjective the stands before descriptive 
and numeral adjectives modifying the noun ; as, the 
white house ; the two Scipios. But all and both take 
the after them ; as, all the gold ; both tne men. 

§ 159. The only adjunct which generally 
modifies the noun is that which is introduced by 
the preposition of; as, the roof of the house. 

The adjunct with of is generally equivalent to the 
possessive case, and is gradually displacing the posses- 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sive. With few exceptions, the possessive form is 
limited to pronouns, to proper names, and names of 
living things. 

By the abbreviation of prepositions, an adjunct often 
stands in such close relation to a noun, that it is said 
to modify it, when strictly it modifies an omitted word. 
Thus, in the phrase, " The man in the moon," the ad- 
junct in the moon is really an abbreviation of the clause 
that is in the moon, and modifies the omitted verb. But 
speaking concisely, it may be said to modify man, be- 
cause it is a part of a clause which modifies man. 

§ 100. Clauses modifying nouns are generally 
introduced by a relative pronoun, and are called 
relative clauses. (§127.) They are often 
equivalent to an adjective, either descriptive or 
specifying. Thus, yonder man, means, the man 
w7io stands yonder / the honest man, means, the 
man who is honest. 

Relative clauses have two distinct uses. The first is 
to modify by way of restriction, or description. In this 
sense they are the equivalents of adjectives. The 
second is to add some fact which might be expressed 
by an independent sentence. 

They who are truly wise begin heaven here. 

The clause limits the subject. 

Jackson, who was always impetuous, sprang up in a 
rage. 

The clause does not limit, but adds a fact. Although 
it refers to Jackson, it really gives a reason why he 
sprang up. Jackson sprang up in a rage, for he was 
always impetuous, would express nearly the same idea. 
An appositive often expresses the idea of such a clause. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 153 

His son William, who was a very strong mem, caught 
him as he fell. 

His son William, a very strong man, caught him as 
he fell. 

A relative clause used in the first sense is called 
re§trictive ; in the second sense, definitive. 

The relative that is preferable to who or which, when 
the antecedent is modified by a superlative. 

The wisest man that (not who) ever lived. 

The sweetest music that (not which) was ever heard. 

The relative clause should stand as near as possible 
to its antecedent, and after it. 

It gives a meaning to his words which is absurd. 

It gives to his words a meaning which is absurd. 

By its position in the first sentence, the clause which 
is absurd modifies words instead of meaning. The 
second order makes the sense clear. 

The antecedent of a relative is very seldom in the 
possessive, for the possessive stands before a noun, and 
the relative seems naturally to refer to the nearer noun. 

His servants ye are whom ye obey. In God^s bright 
face in whom dwelleth infinite love. 

In modern prose we should read, Ye are servants 
of him whom ye obey. In the bright face of God, in 
whom, etc. 

The modifiers of a noun are collectively called adjec- 
tive modifiers. 
1* 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXIY. 

MODIFIERS OF THE PRONOUN, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB AND 
PREPOSITION. 

§ 161. The Pronoun admits three classes of 
modifiers, the Appositive, the Adjunct, and 
the CBause. 

The appositive is very common with the pronouns of 
the first and second person ; as, I Paul beseech you. 
We Consuls are remiss. You rich men know nothing 
of our burdens. You rogue ! You idle fellow ! 

The adjunct is rarely used with the pronoun ; as, 
They of the city ; who of you all f 

The clausal modification of the pronoun differs in 
nothing from the noun modification. 

§ 169. The Adjective may be modified by 
an Adverb, and by an Adjunct, including the 
infinitive, and by a noun used in an adverbial 
relation. 

Adverbs modifying adjectives are generally of degree, 
or of emphasis/ as, someichat, rather, excessively. Ver- 
bal adjectives are modified by adverbs of nearly every 
class. 

The variety of adjuncts admitted by the adjective is 
very great. The verbal adjective may be -modified by 
any preposition with its subsequent. Descriptive ad- 
jectives are most frequently modified by adjuncts whose 
bases are of in, to and for • as, eager for praise; de- 
sirous of going ; useful to the fields ; strong in purpose. 

§ 163. The infinitive modifying an adjective is a 



COMMON SCHOOL COUKSE. 155 

true adjunct, with the preposition to as its base. It is 
the equivalent of the Gerund (§ 95), as may be seen 
below: 

Good to eat, or, good for eating. 

Apt to teach, or, apt in teaching. 

Fair to see, or, fair to the seeing, or, to the sight. 

Anxious to learn, or, anxious/br learning. 

Competent to instruct, or, for instructing. 

This construction is further explained under the head 
of the Infinitive, (§ 181). 

The preposition proper to use after the adjective 
should be carefully noted ; as, agreeable to; delighted 
with / different from / like to. 

§ 164. Adjectives denoting time, measure, 
distance and value are modified by a noun 
used adverbially ; as. 

The book is worth a dollar. (Value.) 
He is sixteen years old. (Time.) 
The wall is four feet thick. (Measure.) 
Harrisburg is five miles away. (Distance.) 
Noticing other languages which denote relation by 
ending, we find that nouns used adverbially have the 
objective form. But in parsing, it is enough to say that 
the adjective is modified by the noun expressing value, 
time, etc. 

The adjectives like, near, and opposite admit a sub- 
stantive modifier; as, like one / near the wall / opposite 
the house. This modification is an abbreviated adjunct. 
The preposition to is often expressed before the noun. 
The adjective may be said to be modified by the noun 
used adverbially, or by an adjunct with the preposition 
omitted. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 105. The Adverb may be modified by 
other adverbs, chiefly by those denoting empha- 
sis and degree ; and by adjuncts ; as, very wisely, 
most kindly, where in the tvorld, never in my 
life. 

The Preposition is nearly related to the 
adverb, and therefore sometimes admits an 
adverb as a modifier ; as, just about going, close 
beside him. 

The Conjunction and the Exclamation 
neither modify, nor are modified. 

LESSON XXXV. 

MODIFIERS OF THE VERB. 

§ 166. The Verb admits four classes of modi- 
fiers ; the Object, the Adjunct, the Adverb, 
and the Clause. 

The Object is the substantive complement of 
a verb which does not admit an adjective com- 
plement. (§ 100, 101.) Such verbs are called 
transitive, and the complement is called the 
Direct Object, and limits the verb to a single 
thing. 

The direct object, if a personal name, answers the 
question whom? if the name of a thing, the question 
what ? 

A noun used as object has the general form. The 



COMMON SCHOOL COUKSE. 157 

relative who, and the personal pronouns except it, have 
distinct forms in the objective. 

The direct object may simply limit the assertion of 
the verb, or may express what the action asserted 
accomplishes. 

I saw the sun. I heard a bell. 

These "objects simply limit the assertion, and are not 
affected by the action. 

He made a boat. He built a house. 

These objects not only limit the verb, but express 
what the action accomplishes. 

§ 1C7. Besides the direct object, transitive 
verbs admit another complement, which is not 
essential to the sense, but is closely related to the 
action of the verb. 

This complement is called the Indirect Ob- 
ject. 

Mr. Green sold a horse. 

The sense of the above is grammatically complete ; 
but to complete still further the history of the transac- 
tion, the name of the buyer is needed. 

Mr. Green sold my father a horse. 

(The name of the buyer is the indirect object.) 

Pilate sent Jesus to Annas. 

The boy bought his sister an orange. 

The teacher read a story to his pupils. 

Who told you such a story ? 

I will send her a new book. 

When the indirect object stands before the direct, no 
preposition is needed ; .when it stands after the direct, 
the preposition to or for is generally used before it; as, 
I gave him the book, or, I gave the book to him. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Care must be taken not to consider all adjuncts with 
to or for as indirect objects. This object is usually per- 
sonal. 

He sold his wheat for cash. For cash is not an indi- 
rect object, but the name of the buyer preceded by to 
would be. 

^ 1G§. Some verbs which do not admit the direct 
object, admit the indirect; as, This is for me / It seems 
strange to me. 

In the compounds methinks and meseems, the me is an 
indirect object, and the subject of the verb is a follow- 
ing sentence or clause. 

Methinks I see a fair and lovely child. 

It seems to me that I see, etc. (For the use of it, see 
§ 125.) 

The second form is the common prose use. Shaks- 
peare wrote, "When it thinks best unto your royal self." 
A modern writer would say, " When it seems best." 

Woe worth the day ! Woe is me ! If you please. 

The above are examples of the indirect object. Worth 
is an obsolete defective verb in the sense of be. You is 
not the subject of the verb, but the indirect object; and 
the clause was once written, If it you please. 

When a sentence containing a direct and an indirect 
object is put into the passive form, the direct object 
becomes the subject, and the indirect object is retained; 
as, They gave me a book (active form) ; A book was 
given me (passive form). 

§ 109. The infinitive, either with or without a pre- 
position, is used as the direct object of a verb ; as, They 
can go. He might learn. Let us try to learn. Boys 
expect to become men. When do you begin to plant? 
I dare not go. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 159 

Verbs signifying to appoint, to call, to choose, to 
name, and to make, admit two objects, one of which is 
direct, and the other is a complement of the idea ex^ 
pressed by the verb and the first object; as, 
They called the city Cleveland. 
They made Richard their leader. 

The first object expresses that upon which the action 
is exerted; the second expresses the result of the action. 

When sentences of this kind assume the passive form, 
the first object becomes the subject, and the second 
remains as a part of the predicate, and has no modifying 
power; as, Richard was made leader. 

The verbs ask and teach take properly a direct and 
an indirect object, but as the preposition is seldom ex- 
pressed before the indirect object of these verbs, it is 
sometimes said that they take two direct objects. 
Either object is used as a subject in the passive form, 
and the other object is retained after the verb. 

They asked me a question. A question was asked 
me ; or, I was asked a question. 

We taught him grammar. He was taught grammar ; 
or, Grammar was taught him. 

§170. The principal differences between the 
active and the passive forms are these. The 
active form gives prominence to the subject ; the 
passive form makes prominent the fact of comple- 
tion. The active form of a transitive verb re- 
quires complements; the passive, except with 
the verbs given above, does not. 

The complement of a verb may be a sentence, 
a clause, or a phrase ; as in the following : 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

His only answer was, " You must do it." 

We heard that you had been ill. 

Without raising his head, he said, " To the 

left." 

§ 171. An abridged clause is sometimes used 
as the complement of a verb ; chiefly with 
verbs denoting thought and sensation. 

An abridged clause, when used as a com- 
plement or object, omits the connecting word, 
changes the subject, if a pronoun, to the 
objective form, and changes the assertive form of 
the verb to the infinitive, or, sometimes, to the 
gerund. 

OBJECT CLAUSES UNABRIDGED. 

I believe that she is truthful. 
They knew that he was an Italian. 
She felt that these words were true. 
All men wished that the work should go on. 
They heard him that he sang. (This expression is 
obsolete.) 

OBJECT CLAUSES ABRIDGED. 

I believe her to be truthful. 

They knew him to be an Italian. 

She felt these toords to be true. 

All men wished the work to go on. 

They heard him sing, or, They heard him singing. 

In many common expressions the full form has be- 
come obsolete, and the abridged is the only proper form ; 
as, They made him tremble. I saw him do it. Hear 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 161 

me say my lesson. Let us go. The object in each of 
these examples is the abridged clause ; not the substan- 
tive which stands before the infinitive. 

The infinitive, then, is used in abridged ob- 
jective clauses instead of the assertive form of 
the verb, and has a subject in the objective form. 

The object clause abridged answers the question 
what ; as, We saw the bird fly. Saw ichat? Saw the 
bird fly. The infinitive is a necessary part of the com- 
plement. But in the sentence, " I shipped the goods to 
go by steamer," goods answers the question what was 
shipped? and the infinitive is not needed, except to ex- 
press an additional fact. To go expresses the purpose 
of the shipper. 

Some verbs generally intransitive admit an object 
whose meaning is like their own ; as, to live a life, to 
dream a dream, to run a race. 

Some intransitive verbs are used in a causative sense, 
and then admit an object. Thus, to dance a child, 
means to cause a child to dance / to run a horse, means 
to cause a horse to run. So, to fly a kite, to spin a top, 
to grow grain. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

MODIFERS OF THE VERB CONTINUED. 

§ 172. 2. An adjunct modifying a verb may 
have any preposition as a base. Adjuncts ex- 
press Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Assent, Nega- 
tion, and all the relations expressed by adverbs 
(§ 142) ; also the Agent of the action, and the 
Origin or Source. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Many adjuncts, like modal adverbs, modify the whole 
assertion ; as, Of course, he will go. Without a doubt, 
he will succeed. 

An adjunct often modifies a verb and its modifiers; 
as in the sentence, "In the beginning, God created the 
heavens and the earth." The adjunct in the beginning 
modifies not simply the verb created, but the verb and 
its object. God created the heavens and the earth in the 
beginning. 

§ 173. 3. The Adverb is generally used as 
a modifier of the verb. All modifiers of a verb 
are called by the general name adverbial. 

The adverb is often equivalent to an adjunct; as, 
speedily, for with speed ; emphatically, for with empha- 
sis; soon, for in a short time. 

A noun may be used, as an adverbial modifier of a 
verb. (Compare § 165.) This modification is used with 
intransitive verbs to express time, quantity, direction 
and value. He remained a year. The field measures 
five acres. We are going home. He has gone east. 
This happened last week. Flour costs nine dollars a 
barrel. This horse weighs twelve hundred pounds. 

This adverbial modifier originally had the objective 
form, and a noun so used may be called an adverbial 
objective. 

It may be asked, why not call a noun used adverbially 
an adverb f Why not call a noun used in apposition an 
adjective f The principal reason is that a word is classed 
according to its general use, and when its class-name is 
once fixed, it is well, when its use in the sentence puts 
it into another class, to recognize in the name applied 
to it, both its general use, and its special use. When 
we say "An adjective used as a noun," we recognize 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 163 

the general use of the word as an adjective, and its 
special use as a noun. 

§ 1T4. Clauses used as modifiers of verbs are 
principally of the following classes : 

1. Temporal, or such as denote time. They are 
usually introduced by an adverb of time; as, He will 
hear us when we pray. Sometimes a preposition intro- 
duces the clause ; as, Charles waited till he heard the 
bell. 

2. Causal, or such as express the reason of some 
assertion. They are generally introduced by the causal 
conjunctions because and for ; as, He does it, because 
he can not help it. 

3. Inferential, which denote a conclusion from a 
previous sentence ; as, I believed, therefore have I 
spoken. Then and now are sometimes used in inferen- 
tial clauses; as, Tell me, then, what you mean to do. 
Now we are satisfied that this is an absurdity. 

4. Conditional, or such as denote doubt, or supposi- 
tion ; If it were so, it was a grievous fault. If we are 
to do it, you must let us know to-morrow. If and 
whether are most frequently used in conditional clauses. 
Conditional clauses generally modify a proposition 
rather than a verb. 

5. Concessive, or such as admit something, while an 
opposite, or contrasted statement is made ; as, Though 
you oppose me, I will go on. The concessive clause is 
sometimes an imperative whose verb is followed by the 
conjunction that / as, Grant that this story is true, what 
does it prove ? Yet and still are frequently used in the 
principal sentence as correlatives to though In the con- 
cessive clause. 

6. Final, or those which express purpose ; as, It is 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ray intention that order be maintained. That and lest 
most generally introduce final clauses. The infinitive 
is very often employed to express purpose. 

In conditional, concessive and final clauses, the sub- 
junctive mode (§ 113) is still employed ; particularly the 
forms of the verb be. 

§ 175. Temporal and causal clauses are often 
abridged by dropping the connective, and changing the 
assertive form of the verb to the participle; as, Having 
finished his work, for when he had finished his work; 
Grossing the river, or, having crossed the river, for, 
when he had crossed the river. 

In such contractions as the above, the subject of the 
clause is the same as that of the leading sentence. The 
participle is then said to refer to the subject, and an 
assertion is implied, but not directly made. 

When the subject of the clause is not the same as that 
of the leading sentence, the connective is omitted, and 
the subject remains, with a participle instead of the 
assertive form ; as, 

When the war was over, the prisoners were released. 

The war being over, the prisoners were released. 

The noun in such clauses is said to be absolute, or 
used without grammatical relation. When a pronoun 
is the subject of such a clause, it retains the form of the 
subject; as, He having been elected, the opposition was 
diminished, instead of when he was elected. 

An independent member of a compound sentence is 
sometimes shortened into a participial clause ; as, Tak- 
ing a lamp, he opened the door, instead of, He took a 
lamp and opened the door. Taking refers to he. 

I knew that he was a soldier. I knew of his being a 
soldier, or, of his having been a soldier. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 165 

This form of the participial clause is used when the 
verb be is the verb of the predicate. 

Sometimes the verb is changed as well as the form ; 
as, During the wai\ for while the war lasted. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

§ 170. By the Construction of a word is 
meant its use in the sentence, and its relation to 
other words. 

,A noun or a pronoun may be used 

1. As the subject of a sentence. The subject noun 
has the general form, and the pronoun the subject form, 
or nominative case. 

2. As a modifier denoting the relation of possession. 
This relation is marked by a change of ending, and 
the form which expresses it is called the possessive case. 

3. As an adjective modifier of some other substantive 
which denotes the same person or thing. It is then called 
an appositive of the substantive modified. The pro- 
noun is very rarely used in this construction. Proper 
nouns are much more frequently modified by an apposi- 
tive, and personal pronouns are often modified, but do 
not themselves modify. An appositive is in the same 
relation as the word which it modifies. It sometimes 
modifies a clause, and is used absolutely (§157). 

4. As direct or indirect object of a verb (§101, 
§ 167). The form of the pronoun when thus used has a 
form called the objective form, or case. 

5. As the subsequent of a preposition (§ 144). The 
form of the subsequent pronoun is the objective form 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. As the subject of an infinitive in an abbreviated 
object clause (§171). A pronoun so used has the ob- 
jective form. 

7. As a part of a predicate, without any grammatical 
relation. This substantive complement is employed 
only after intransitive verbs, and especially after the 
verb be. 

Ex. — He was a sailor. They became merchants. He 
fell a victim. I walk a queen. He died a martyr. It 
is I. It is toe. 

A noun used as the complement of an intransitive 
verb has the general form, and a pronoun so used has 
the nominative, or subject form. In analyzing, say that 
the substantive is a part of the assertion, or predicate. 

8. This same construction is used in abridged preposi- 
tions, both after the infinitive and the participle ; as, To 
be a Roman was greater than a king. His being a 
cripple prevented his obtaining the place. The subject 
in either of these sentences is the abridged clause. 
Moman and cripple are a part of the implied predicate. 
A noun so used is often called the predicate Nomina- 
tive, because it has the nominative, or general form. 
This form of the abridged clause may be the subsequent 
of a preposition ; as, The atrocious crime of being a 
young man. 

When in an abridged object clause, the infinitive to 
be is used with a subject before it, a pronoun which 
forms part of the predicate has the objective form ; as, 
I believe it to be him. You knew it to be me. 

8. As absolute, with a participle, in an abridged 
clause. This use implies the subject relation, and a 
substantive so used has the subject form. 

9. As absolute, in direct address, when the noun has 
no relation to the sentence, and has the general form. 



COMMON SCHOOL COUESE. 167 

10. As an adverb, modifying adjectives and verbs 
denoting Time, Quantity, Direction and Value (§ 165, 
173). 

§ 177. The adjective has two distinct offices. 

1. To modify or limit nouns. 

2. To form a predicate with intransitive verbs. 
The adjective when modifying or limiting a noun 

generally stands before the noun. It may be a part of 
the predicate when a pronoun, an infinitive, or any 
substantive phrase is employed as the subject. It is 
then said to refer to the subject. 

Numerals and a few pronominal adjectives contain 
the idea of number, and must be used with nouns which 
correspond to them in number. Nouns which have the 
same form in both numbers may be modified by singular 
or by plural adjectives; as, one pair; three pair. Five 
yoke of oxen. In the expression this ten years, this is 
singular, because one period is implied. 

§ 178. The Verb has endings in the second and 
third persons singular of the present tense, and in the 
second singular of the past tense, to show the person 
and number of the subject. In these forms, the verb is 
said to agree with its subject, and the singular forms 
should never be used with a plural subject, nor a plural 
form with a singular subject. Observe that a word may 
be singular in form, but plural in idea, and that a col- 
lective noun (§ 86) may take a verb in either form. 

Two times two are four. Two times two is four. 
Both forms are used. The singular form is preferable. 

(For a full discussion of this expression, see Goold-Brown*a 
Grammar of Grammars; pp. 587-591.) 

Upwards of a million bushels have been received. 

Over a thousand dollars have been collected. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Some use the singular verb in the above, and consider 
the logical subject as an expression for a sura, or a 
quantity. Bushels is the subject of the first sentence, 
and million is the subsequent of of Bushels upwards 
of a million is the order of the sense. 

§ 179. The verb properly stands after its subject. 
Except in Interrogative and Imperative sentences, and 
when the sentence is transposed for emphasis, or for 
meter ; as, Ash you why ? Have we changed ? Did 
you know ? Break we our watch up. Go thou. Great 
is Diana of the Ephesians ! Parched was the grass, 
and blighted was the corn. 

Except also conditional clauses, when the conjunction 
is omitted ; as, Were it so, instead of if it were so. 

When the subject is properly a clause standing after 
the verb, it often stands before the verb as an apparent 
subject. 

The verbs lack, need and want are sometimes used in 
the simple form instead of the compound; as, There 
needs no evidence, instead of no evidence is needed. 
There lacked not men of daring, instead of were not 
lacking. Need often omits the ending of the third per- 
son singular ; as, He need not go. 

The active form is sometimes used instead of the 
passive ; as, Wheat sells readily, instead of is sold. No 
one is to blame (to be blamed). 

§180. , When the subject is compound, and the 
substantives composing it are connected by or, or nor, 
the verb agrees with the nearer subject in person and 
number; as, You or I am mistaken. (Better, You are 
mistaken, or I am.) Neither the citizens, nor the city 
pleases him. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 169 

When the three persons are spoken of together, 
modesty on the part of the speaker brings his own 
name, or the pronoun referring to it, last in order ; and 
respect to the person addressed requires that his name 
should stand first. The proper order is second, third, 
first persons ; as, There is one for you, one for your 
brother, and one for me. 

General truths are always expressed by the present 
tense. 

He said that the sun is (not was) a fixed star. 

Epicurus taught that happiness is (not was) the chief 
good. 

I told you that we are (not were) Americans. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 

§ 181. Although the infinitive and participle are 
really included under the noun, adjective and verb, it is 
thought best to give them a more complete discussion 
by themselves ; to review and to enlarge what has already 
been said. 

The infinitive is the theme, and one of the substantive 
forms of the verb. It admits verbal modifiers, but has 
noun relations. In Saxon it had the ending an, and 
was never preceded by the preposition to. The omis- 
sion of the preposition is still about as common as its 
use. After the so-called auxiliary verbs may, can, must, 
shall, will ; after bid, dare, feel, let, make, see, and sev- 
eral others, it is generally omitted. 

The infinitive in early Saxon had a declension, and 
the case of the indirect object ended in enne, and 
was preceded by the preposition to. This form was 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

used after the great majority of verbs, and came in time 
to be regarded as the true infinitive form. The preposi- 
tion was retained after its meaning had entirely disap- 
peared. And even when the infinitive is used as subject, 
we find to, the preposition appropriate to the indirect 
object, standing before it. 

§ 185$, The infinitive, then, as it now exists in our 
language, comes from three sources. 

1. From an old nominative and objective form in an, 
which never had a preposition before it. This infinitive 
is used as the direct object of a verb, and sometimes in 
the predicate of an abridged clause; as, do go y may 
send / let us see. 

2. From the old indirect object form, after the prep- 
osition to. In many cases, the preposition still takes 
the infinitive as a subsequent ; as, good to eat, that-is, 
for eating ; a house to let, that is, for letting / glad to 
hear, that is, at hearing y too late to see him. 

3. From the form preceded by to, from a mistaken 
notion that the preposition is a part of the form. In 
this sense, to has no meaning. This form is used as a 
subject, as a direct object, and as part of a predicate ; 
as, to hear is to obey ; to err is human, to forgive divine. 
This form is even used as the subsequent of another 
preposition ; as about to go. Nothing should ever 
stand between the preposition to and the following infini- 
tive. To thoroughly comprehend is incorrect. The 
adverb should stand after the verb. 

§ 183. The following are the principal uses of the 
infinitive. 

1. To express purpose ; as, Do not stop to play ; 
that is, {'or the purpose of playing. I flee unto thee to 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. l7l 

hide me ; that is, for the purpose of hiding. I am going 
to Quincy to buy grain. 

2. To express cause ; as, I am glad to Jcnow it. We 
are pained to hear of his conduct. 

3. As an adjective modifier, or in the sense of the 
imperfect participle ; as, in the time to come / that is, 
coining time. Our kings to be/ that is, future kings. 

4. After as, to express result. So great as to surpass 
himself; that is, great as the surpassing of himself. 
Who is so wise as to know these things ? That is, Who 
is so wise as the knowing these things would prove him 
to be? (To surpass and to know are the subjects of 
omitted verbs.) Remember the commandments to do 
them. He is too old to be caught. 

5. As an adjunct, in a great variety of meanings. It 
is often equivalent to a relative clause, or to a descrip- 
tive adjective ; as, an event to be deplored, or a deplor- 
able event. A character to admire ; that is, which 
should be admired, or, an admirable character. 

6. It is used in place of the participle in abridged 
clauses, referring to the subject; as, To return to our 
subject, that is, returning to our subject. To tell the 
truth, I did it. Telling the truth, I did it. Every com- 
mon-sense man has, so to speak, a stereoscopic vision. 
The phrase so to speak means speaking thus, and the 
implied subject is indefinite ; one might speak thus. 

The Gerund and the Infinitive represent the action 
of the verb in a general seuse, without any distinction 
of Voice. Hence, in the phrases, a house to let, the 
picture which is painting, there is no necessity for using 
a passive form. 

§ 184. The Imperfect Participle in Saxon had the 
ending and, which distinguished it from the Geruud; 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but both endings in time became ing. The verbal form 
ending in ing has three distinct uses, which may now be 
distinguished by three distinct names. 

1. It stands before a noun as a modifier; as, a thresh- 
ing machine, running water, a standing army. It is 
then called a Verbal Adjective. 

2. It is used as a Substantive, either as a subject, a 
complement, or an adjunct modifier; as, Your writing 
looks well. Leave wringing of your hands. I am doing 
what you told me to do. My brother is going a-hunting. 
I saw him running, that is, in the act of running. The 
water is boiling (not being boiled). It is then called a 
Gerund. 

3. It is used to imply Assertion, in abridged clauses, 
either with a noun absolute in the same clause, or refer- 
ring to the subject or object of the principal sentence, 
or to some indefinite word. It is then called a Parti- 
ciple. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. With a substantive absolute. 

This having been done, they returned in triumph. 

The enemy having received reinforcements, the siege 
was raised. 

Notwithstanding his struggles, he was bound fast. 

His mission having been fulfilled, he returned to 
Carthage. 

2. Referring to the subject or object of the principal 
sentence. 

Nouns ending (which end) in et are generally Dimin- 
utives. 

Saving a little leisure, I write to you. 

Finding that the enemy were giving way, he ordered 
a charge. 



COMMON SCHOOL COUESE. 173 

They said nothing concerning (which concerned) the 
election. 

3. Referring to an indefinite subject. 

Touching the Almighty, we can not find him out. 

Speaking plainly, this affair disgraced the nation. 

Making all due allowance, the statement is improba- 
ble. 

Respecting your offer, it is not yet time to decide. 

(The so-called prepositions in ing (§ 145) belong here.) 

Care must be taken to distinguish the Gerund from 
the Participle. If the infinitive can be substituted for 
the form in ing, or, if a preposition can stand before it, 
it is a gerund ; as, I saw him running, or, I saw him 
run; they found him writing, or, they found him 
a-writing, or, at his writing. 

§ 1§5. The Perfect Participle is sometimes used as 
a descriptive adjective before a noun ; as, a finished 
article ; an admitted necessity. But it is much more 
common as a predicate adjective; as in the passive 
form, or as a complement of having in a form generally 
called active, and yet so far as the perfect participle is 
concerned, as much a passive form as any other. It has 
been already noticed that be and have do not differ 
much in meaning in the ordinary compound forms of 
the verb. The German language uses both have and be 
in making up its compound tenses. We say, I have 
been ; a German says, I am been. We say either is 
arrived, or, has arrived, and, in either case, the leading 
idea is completion, not passivity, or the suffering some- 
thing to be done. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

TRANSPOSITION. ANALYSIS. 

§ 186. The proper order of words in English 
has been already indicated, but a brief review is 
given. 

The subject and its modifiers stand first in the 
sentence, the verb next, and the complements of 
the verb last. The indirect object without a 
preposition precedes the direct. 

Descriptive, definitive, and numeral adjectives 
stand before the noun. Except when themselves 
modified by an adjunct which stands after them. 

The adjunct generally stands after the word 
which it modifies. 

The appositive stands after the noun which it 
modifies ; the possessive before. 

Adverbs modifying adjectives precede them. 

Adjective clauses stand directly after the nouns 
which they modify. 

Conditional, temporal, and concessive clauses 
stand before the principal sentence. Also ad- 
juncts denoting time. 

The modal adverb stands before the sentence, 
or between the verb and its infinitive comple- 
ment ; as, They dare not go. Doubtless he will 
succeed. Certainly it is there. 

The order of subject and predicate is regularly 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 175 

inverted in Interrogative and Imperative sen- 
tences. 

The order of the sentence is changed for em- 
phasis, for euphony, for variety, and in poetry, 
for rhyme and metre. 

§ 187. Before analyzing a sentence, it is de- 
sirable to arrange its parts in their logical order, 
or, to transpose words. 

EXAMPLES OF TEANSPOSITTO^. 

" High with the last line scaled her voice, and this 
All in a fiery dawning wild with wind 
That shook her tower, the brothers heard." 

Transposed. — Her voice scaled high with the 
last line, and her brothers heard this in a fiery 
dawning all wild with wind that shook her 
tower. 

In the costly canopy o'er him set 

Blazed the last diamond of the nameless king. 

Transposed. — The last diamond of the name- 
less king blazed in the costly canopy set o'er 
him. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

A complete analysis should embrace every word, and give its 
relations to other words and to the sentence. Written analysts 
of sentences should be required often. They serve as composi- 
tion, punctuation and spelling exercises, and are too important 
to be omitted. Pupils should be (aught to abbreviate their work, 
so as to save time in writing and correcting. Written analyses 
may be exchanged by the pupils in class ; one pupil may read, 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and the rest may criticise and correct errors. When the pupils 
are reasonably familiar with analysis, the simpler modifications 
may either be omitted or briefly indicated, and the attention 
directed to obscurer points. 

§ 188. Society has almost always begun in 
inequality, and its tendency is towards equality. 

The above is a compound declarative sentence, con- 
sisting of two propositions, connected by the conjunc- 
tion and. Society is the first subject; it is unmodified; 
has begun is the simple predicate ; has almost always 
begun in inequality is the logical predicate. Has begtm 
is modified by the temporal adverb ahcays, and by the 
adjunct in inequality, denoting place where. Always 
is modified by the restrictive adverb almost. The 
second subject is tendency ; is towards equality is the 
predicate. The subject is modified by the possessive 
its. Is is the simple predicate, it requires a complement, 
which is the adjunct towards equality. The present 
tense denotes a general truth. The adjunct forms a 
part of the predicate, and does not modify any thing. 

§ 189. Parsing or verbal analysis of the same. 

Society, common noun, 3rd singular, subj. of the sen- 
tence. 

Has, verb, present, 3rd singular, weak conj., drops v 
before the ending s, taken with its complement begun 
forms pres. perfect tense. 

Almost, an adverb of degree, modifies ahcays. 

Always, an adverb of time repeated, modifies begun. 

Begun, past part, of strong verb begin, adj. comple- 
ment of has. 

In, a preposition, base of the adjunct. 

Inequality, abstract noun, subsequent of in, and with 
it modifies begun. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 177 

And, copulative conj., connects the two sentences. 

Its, pronoun, 3rd singular neuter, stands for society's, 
possessive, modifies tendency. 

Tendency, common noun, 3rd singular, subj. of sen- 
tence. 

Is, verb from irregular be, intransitive, 3rd sing., to 
correspond with subj., takes the adjunct following as its 
complement. 

Towards, a preposition, denoting direction. 

Equality, abstract noun, from adj. equal, subsequent 
of towards. 

§ 190. Many think this man a patriot ; we, 
on the contrary, think him a mere selfish, time- 
serving politician. 

Many, pron. adj., mod. omitted noun, subj. of 1st 
sentence. 

Think, vb., irreg., trans., taking the ab. clause this 
man a patriot as complement. 

This, spec, adj., limits man. 

Man, comm. n., subj. of omitted inf. to be. 

A, spec, adj., limits patriot. 

Patriot, comm. n., part of the pred. 

We, pers. pro., 1st pers. plu., standing for some un- 
known noun, subj. of think. 

On, prep., base of adj. on the contrary. 

The, spec, adj., limits contrary. 

Contrary, adj. used as n., subs, of on. The adjunct 
is modal ; mod. the sentence. 

Think, vb. trans., mod. by obj. clause, him (to be) a 
politician. 

JL 9 spec, adj., limits politician. 

Mere, desc. adj., variable, mod. politician. 
8* 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Selfish, desc. adj., from n. self., mod. politician. 

Time-serving, comp. desc. adj., made up of n. time, 
and verbal adj. serving, mod. politician. 

Politician, comm. n., part of pred. 

The sentence is compound and complex ; each of the 
two members containing an abridged clause as an ob- 
ject. 

§ 191. A figured verbal analysis, simply pointing 
out the parts of speech, is convenient for brief written 
exercises ; as in the following example. The numbers 
above the words indicate the parts of speech as num- 
bered in § 6. 

41641 1 2 5 641 

The tower of old Saint Nicholas soared upward to the skies, 

44 416 1 1416 1 

Like some huge piece of Nature's make, the growth of centuries. 

Relations of words may also be figured to the eye by 
any method which the teacher may choose to adopt. 
The best way of fixing the different relations of nouns, 
different offices of the infinitive, etc., is to require the 
pupils to compose, or select examples of whatever is to 
be illustrated, and to present them in writing for the 
criticism of the teacher and the class. Thus the teacher 
may require as the lesson of the day, that each of the 
ten constructions of the noun and pronoun (§ 176) shall 
be illustrated by two examples, either composed by the 
pupils, or selected from some author. 

It is not recommended, at this stage, to require of the pupil the 
reason of every assertion. Time is really frittered away when a 
pupil who possesses ordinary intelligence, and has been studying 
language for years, is required to tell the reason why he calls the 
most familiar name a noun. This minute commcn-place analysis 
belongs to the elementary work, and is then in place, and im- 
portant. The teacher should now aim to present to the pupil the 
points which involve most difficulty. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. lV9 

§ 192. A few passages are given with questions 
developing the most important points. 

I sometimes hold it half a sin 
To put in words the grief I feel. 

For what does it stand? Of what part of speech is 
half? What verb corresponds to half, and how is it 
formed? (§121). Construction of half and of sin? 
Construction of to put ? Does to have a subsequent, or 
is it used without meaning? Would in or into be used 
in prose in this passage ? Illustrate their use by exam- 
ples and determine when in should be used, and when 
into. What is omitted after grief? Verb correspond- 
ing to grief? Is feel transitive, or intransitive? 

Go ! leave me, priest ; my soul would be 
Alone with the consoler, Death : 

Far sadder eyes than thine will see 

This crumbling clay yield up its breath. 

How many sentences in the above ? How many im- 
perative sentences? Principal parts of go ? of leave ? 
Construction of priest? Why is would nsed in the past 
tense when the speaker is contemplating something in 
the future ? (§ 109). Does alone ever stand before a 
noun ? Construction of Death ? Why commenced with 
a capital ? When is thine used instead of thy ? Why 
is thine employed instead of yours ? What does thine 
limit? Object of icill? Object of see ? Is see an asser- 
tive, or an infinitive form ? Construction of clay ? Of 
yield? Of what part of speech is up? What verb 
corresponds to breath? 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XL. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

§ 193. A Figure of Speech is an inten- 
tional departure from the ordinary form, order, 
construction, or meaning of words. Figures of 
Speech are intended to give emphasis, clearness, 
variety, or beauty. 

They are divided into Figures of Orthography, 
of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. 

§ 194. A figure of Orthography is an inten- 
tional mis-spelling of a word. 

Archaism is the spelling of a word after the old form, 
or the use of an obsolete form instead of the modern : 
as, Jcynge for king ; kaitphe for coffee ; spake for spoke ; 
strook for struck. For many examples in a modern 
poem, see Jean Ingelow's " High Tide on the Coast of 
Lincolnshire." 

Mimesis is the mimicking of an incorrect pronuncia- 
tion by false spelling ; as, 

Hans Schnitzel* hat a vloshipede, 
Von of de newest hint. 

§ 195. Figures of Etymology are changes in 
the ordinary forms of words by additions, omis- 
sions, and by separation of parts. 

Aphiaeresis is the omission of one or more letters at 
the beginning of a word; as, Against for against y 'gan 
for began / His for it is. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 181 

Prosthesis is the prefixing of letters for euphony or 
for meter ; as, adown for down • awake for wake. 

Syncope is the omission of letters in the middle of a 
word ; as, e'en for even / o'er for over / e'er for ever. 
Sometimes in poetry, the sound is omitted while the 
letters are retained ; as, 

No medicine in the world can do thee good. 

The meter requires medicine to be pronounced as if 
printed med'ciiie. 

Apocope is the cutting off of final letters ; as, Iho* for 
though ; th? for the ; o? for of ; a for an. Many modern 
forms come from the ancient by apocope ; since languages 
generally tend to shorten their forms. The omission of 
the old gerund and infinitive endings, and of the en in 
the strong participle, are examples. 

Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable which 
has no significance ; as, withouten for without / steepy 
for steep ; steely for steel ; mine and thine for my and 
thy. 

Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels which might 
form a diphthong; as aeronaut, not aeronaut, orthoepy, 
not orthoepy. 

Synaeresis is the opposite of diaeresis ; the uniting 
of two syllables into one ; either in sound without 
change of form, or by syncope ; as, courtesy for courtesy; 
can't for can not ; loved for lov-ed. 

Tmesis- is the separating of the parts of a compound 
word by some other word ; as, His thoughts which are 
to tis ward, for toward us / on which side so ever I turn 
my eyes, for whichsoever side. 

§ 190. Figures of Syntax are intentional 
variations from the regular grammatical con- 
struction of words. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ellipsis is the omission of words essential to the struc- 
ture of the sentence. It is more common in speech than 
in writing, as the looks and gestures of the speaker sup- 
ply the place of omitted words. Words omitted are said 
to be understood. Any member of the sentence may be 
omitted, even the verb ; as, I'll (go) hence to London. 
My father is wiser than I (am.) 

The ellipsis of the infinitive and participle of be is fre- 
quent; as, This (being) done, they returned. I consider 
him (to be) an honest man. 

It is inelegant to end a sentence with the preposition 
to, requiring an infinitive subsequent; as, He did not 
escape, but he tried to. Either express the infinitive, or 
change the order. 

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as, John 
he said that he would go. I know thee who thou art. 
The emphatic repetition of a word is a kind of pleonasm. 
An apposition may be a pleonasm. A series of nouns in 
the same connection are often summed up in one word; 
as, Father, mother, children, servants, all were swept to 
ruin in a moment. 

Syllepsis is the use of a word according to the sense, 
and not according to the form of some word to which 
it refers. 

Philip went down to Samaria and preached Christ 
unto them. 

Them would be it, were it not for the figurative use 
of Samaria for the people of Samaria. The pronoun is 
used according to the sense, not the form. The use of 
a plural form of the verb with a collective noun in the 
singular is a kind of syllepsis. 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, 
or of one form for another. The use of the plural you 
for the singular thou is a common example ; also of we 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 183 

for I. In poetry, the Adjective and the Adverb are 
often interchanged. The use of a pronoun for a verb is 
under the same figure ; as, 

Whom thouest thou, Scot ? 

If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not be amiss. 

Hyperfoaton, or Transposition, is a change in the 
usual order of words. 

"Do they call virtue there forgetfulness?" for, Do 
they there call forgetfulness virtue? 

" Wander the wide world over," for, wander over the 
wide world. 

§ 107. Figures of Rhetoric, also called 
Tropes, are deviations from the ordinary mean- 
ing of words. 

A §imile is a direct comparison of two objects, by 
way of explanation, or of embellishment. It is gener- 
ally introduced by like, as, or so, with a correlative in 
the second member of the comparison. The introduc- 
tory word is often omitted. 

Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord 
pitieth them that fear Him. 

The sun is dying like a cloven king 
In his own blood. 

Sunset is burning like the seal of God 
Upon the close of day. 
A Metaphor is a comparison implied, but not ex- 
pressed ; as, God is a rock. His name is a tower of 
strength. 

A great city lying in its smoke, 
A monster sleeping in its own thick breath. 
An Allegory is a story designed to illustrate some 
moral truth, containing a continued metaphor. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's -Progress is the best example of 
an allegory carried through an entire work. Many of 
the Scripture parables are metaphors. Some fables are 
metaphors. 

Metonymy is a substitution of one name for another 
related name; as the name of an author for his works; 
an effect for a cause; the container for the thing con- 
tained ; the sign for the thing signified ; a place for its 
inhabitants; the material for the thing made of it; as, 

We are reading Shakespeare. Gray hairs deserve 
respect. He drank the cup to its dregs. He carried 
away the palm. Hear me, Borne. He drew his steel. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for a whole, or 
a whole for a part; as, a sail for a ship; a roof for a 
house ; a leinter for a year ; bread for food. 

Hyperbole is extravagant metaphor or a comparison 
beyond all reasonable limits. Cold as Greenland for a 
severe winter day ; light as day, for a clear moonlight 
night ; waves mountain high / awful, for very ; splen- 
did, for good or excellent, are common examples of 
hyperbole. 

Apostrophe is a turning aside from the order of nar- 
ration to address some real or imaginary character ; as 
in the "Fall of Warsaw" the author turns away from 
his narrative with this apostrophe, 

" O righteous Heaven ! ere Freedom found a grave 
Where slept the sword, omnipotent to save ?" 

Personification is the representing an inanimate 
object, or a brute, as endowed with human attributes; 
as, "Lazy wire!" exclaimed the dial-p>late, holding up 
its hands. " If you are satisfied," replied the monkey, 
"Justice is not." 

Irony is a playful or sarcastic statement of something 
intended to be taken in a sense exactly opposite ; as one 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 185 

says, "Very pleasant," when he means very disagree- 
able; "Much you know about it," when he means 
u You know nothing about it." The intonation of the 
voice expresses the sense to a hearer. 

Onomatopoeia is the use of a word which imitates 
in its sound, a sound which is to be expressed ; as, 
buzz, whiz, rap, clang, hum, murmur ; and such words 
as moo, bow-wow, ding dong, rub-a-dub. 

Alleteration is the commencing of successive words 
with the same letter; as, 

Begot by butchers but by bishops bred, 
How high his honor holds his haughty head. 

Many other figures are enumerated, but the above are 
the principal. They should be required as a part of the 
study of the reading-lesson, as important in the meaning 
of the sentence. 



LESSON XLI. 

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

§ 198. Certain significant prefixes and suffixes 
are often used in composition of words, adding 
their own meaning to the root with which they 
are compounded. The more important are 
given. 

ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES. 

A, a preposition, meaning on, in, or at, sometimes 
simply prosthesis. Abroad, ashore, afield, afloat, or 
without meaning, awake, arise. 

Be signifies over, by ; changes intransitive verbs to 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

transitive; gives emphasis to transitive verbs; and is 
sometimes expletive. 

Ex. 1. Becloud, bedim. 2. Bethink, belie. 3. Be- 
deck, bepraise. 4. Begird, beloved. 

Mi§ signifies wrong, ill, or is simply negative. Mis- 
taken, mis-shapen, mistrust. 

Un denotes negation. It is used with many adjectives 
and verbs, and always before participles which admit a 
negative form. Unkind, unman, unknowing, unwept. 

With (German wider) denotes against, from ; as, 
withstand, withhold, withdraw. It has no connection 
w r ith the preposition of the same spelling. 

LATIN PREFIXES. 

§ 199. A, ab, or abs means from, away; as avert, 
turn away; abduct, lead away; abstract, draw away. 

Ad (changing d into c, f, 1, n, p, and s before those 
consonants respectively) means to or at/ as, adduce, 
bring to ; accede, yield to ; affix, fasten to ; ally, bind 
to ; annex, tie to ; apposition, putting to ; assume, take 
to ; attract, draw to. 

Ante means before; as, antediluvian, before the 
deluge. 

Circum means around or about ; as, circumjacent, 
lying about. 

Com (co, col, con, cor) means with or together ; as, 
commingle; co-partner ; colloquy, talking together; 
conjoin; correlative. 

Contra,- contro (French counter) means against ; 
as, counteract. 

De means from or down ; as, depart, descend. 

Dis or di implies separation ; as, disjoin, divert, turn 
aside. 



COMMON SCHOOL COUESE. 187 

E or ex (ef) means out; as, eject, cast out; expel 
drive out; efface, rub out. 

Extra means over, beyond ; as, extraordinary. 

In (II, im, ir) with verbs, means in, into, or upon/ 
with nouns or adjectives it is usually negative ; as in- 
dent, illumine, immerse, irradiate ; injustice, immoral, 



Inter means between or among ; as, intermix, inter- 
meddle. 

On (oc, of, op) means against or to ; as, obtrude, 
push against ; occur, run against ; offer, bring to ; oppose 
put against. 

Per means through or by; as, permeate, flow through ; 
perchance, perhaps. 

Post means after; as, postpone, put after. 

Pre means before ; premeditate, prefix. 

Pro means for, forth, forward ; as, proconsul; pro- 
pose, put forth ; propel, to push forward. 

Re means back or again; as, recall, re-establish. 

Se means away or aside ; as, seduce, lead away ; secede, 
withdraw. 

Semi (Greek lie mi, French clemi) means half ; as, 
semi-circle. v\j^^^\- 

Sub (sue, suf, sug, §up, sus) means under; as, sw#- 
terranean ; succor, literally running under; suffer, labor 
under; suggest, put under; supposition, placing under; 
suspect, look under. 

Super is the opposite of sub; as, superhuman, super- 
natural. 

Trans means over, across, beyond, or through; as, 
transfer, carry over ; transport, carry across ; transgress, 
go beyond ; translucent, shining through. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

GREEK PREFIXES. 

§ 200. Words which contain ch hard, ph, or y 
except at the beginning or end, are usually of Greek 
origin ; as, monarch, physic, synonym. 

A or an has a negative force ; as, acephalous, head- 
less ; anarchy, without rnle. 

Anti means against; as, anti-slavery. 

Apo or aph (Latin ab) means from, or away ; as, 
apostrophe, turning away ; aphceresis, taking away. 

IMa means through; as, diameter, measure through. 

Epi or eph means upon ; as, epitaph, upon a tomb. 

Hyper (Latin super) means above, over/ as, hyper- 
critical, over-critical; hyperbole, overshooting. 

Hypo (Latin sub) means under; as, hypothesis, put- 
ting under. 

Meta means over, beyond; as, metamorphose, change 
over. 

Peri means around ; as, perimeter, measure around. 

Syn, syl, sym (Latin com) means with, or together ; 
as, syllable, taking together ; symphony, sounding 
together ; syntax, putting together. 

FRENCH PREFIXES. 

A means to ; as, adieu, to God ; alarm (a Parme), to 
call to arms. 

I>e or d' means of or from ; as, deliver, free from; 
Detroit, of the strait. 

En or em is the Latin in; sur is the Latin super. 

ENGLISH SUFFIXES. 

§ 201. Dom, in a noun, indicates the quality, state, 
condition, or jurisdiction of the primitive ; as freedom*, 
martyrdom, wisdom, dukedom, Christendom. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 189 

Hood, or head denotes existence, quality, or state ; 
as, Godhead, hardihood, boyhood. 

Itfess is an abstract (§57) ending, found in 1300 
nouns. 

L<es§ in adjectives -denotes without; as, careless, 



Ship nearly equals bood. It expresses abstractly 
that which is implied by its primitive ; as, hardship, 
partnership. 

For diminutive endings, see page 96. For isii see 
§135. 

The endings er, ar, or, ard, art, §ter (feminine) 
annexed to a verb, denote the agent or doer / as, baker, 
beggar, sailor, drunkard, braggart, spinster. 

LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES. 

§ 202. The endings or, rix (feminine), eer, ier, ee 

(passive), ent, and ant denote a person connected in 
some way with that action or thing which the root im- 
plies; as, actor, executrix, auctioneer, brigadier, com- 
tnittee, president, servant. 

Cule and cle are diminutives ; animalcule, particle, 
conventicle. 

Cy, ancc, ence, ice, ion, in ent. or, ity, ude, and 
ure are abstract endings, sometimes annexed to adjec- 
tives, sometimes to verbs ; as, inclemency, extravagance, 
penitence, justice, division, judgment, splendor, nullity, 
amplitude, tincture. 

For the verb endings ize, ise, and fj r , see § 121. 



PKOSODY. 



LESSON XLII. 

§ 203. Prosody treats of Accent, Versi- 
fication and Punctuation. 

Accent is a stress of voice laid upon certain 
syllables for euphony, for pointing out the em- 
phatic idea, and to distinguish different uses of 
the same word. 

If all syllables were pronounced with the same force, 
the monotony would be intolerable. The regular suc- 
cession of accents distinguishes verse from prose ; as, 
" And the sheen' of their spears' was like stars' on the 
sea'." 

In compound words the accent is on the first part, 
because the emphatic distinction is in the first; as 
steam'boat, row'boat. The verb is distinguished from 
the noun by throwing the accent forward (page 123.) 
Accent for euphony is common in prose, even when a 
sentence is made up of monosyllables ; as, Give' me the 
book'. 

Every word of more than one syllable has an accent. 
Polysyllables may have two or more accents ; as, ex'-po- 
si'-tion, un'-in-tel'-li-gi-bil'-i-ty. 

§ 304. Emphasis is that variation of tone, 
of form, or of position in the sentence, by which 
special attention is called to any word. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 191 

It is generally exj)ressed by contra§t ; a louder tone 
is contrasted with the ordinary level of the voice ; in 
loud passages, it is often expressed by dropping the 
voice; and generally an emphatic word is followed by a 
pause, to contrast a sound with silence. 

Rhythm is a regular succession of accents. 

Terse is made tip of sentences rhythmically 
arranged. 

Rhyme is a correspondence of two words in 
final sound with a difference in initial sounds ; as 
~p\ain, main/ Atlantic, gigantic; unfortunate, 
importunate. It usually occurs at the end of 
verses. 

§ 205. A Verse is a single line in rhythmic 
order. 

Poetry is the language of strong imagination. 
It is a nobler term than verse. The multiplica- 
tion table can be put into verse, but not into 
poetry. Poetry does not necessarily imply rhyme 
or rhythm, but generally includes rhythm. 

Unrhymed poetry is called bSank verse. 

A Canto is a principal division of a long 
poem. 

A Stanza is a regular division of a poem, 
made up of a uniform number of verses, repeated 
in regular order. It is often erroneously called 
a verse. 

§ 205. A Foot is a combination of an ac- 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cented syllable with one or more unaccented 
syllables. The following are the four feet most 
used in English verse : 

1. The Trochee 5 an accented syllable fol- 
lowing an unaccented ; as, 

" Sail' of sat'in, mast' of ce'dar." 

2. The Iambus $ an accented syllable follow- 
ing an accented ; as, 

" Thy shores' are em'pires changed' in all' save thee'." 
The iambus is the most common foot in English verse. 
Most of the longer poems of Milton, Pope, Young, 
Campbell, and Byron are in ten-syllabled iambic lines. 
Scott used mostly the eight-syllabled iambic line. 

3. The Dactyl is a foot composed of an ac- 
cented syllable followed by two unaccented ; as, 
" In' the Aca'dian land', on the shores' of the ba'sin of 

Mi'nas." (The last foot is a trochee.) 

4. The Anapest is the dactyl reversed ; two 
unaccented syllables followed by an accented ; as, 
" And his co'horts were gleam'ing in pur'ple and gold'." 

The following lines may help to fix the feet in memory. 

The Spondee, which accents every syllable, is rarely 

found in English verse. For long and short, understand 

accented and unaccented. 

" Tro'chee trips' from long' to short' ; 
From long to long, in solemn sort, 
Slow' Spon'dee' stalks', strong' foot', yet ill able 
Ev'er to come' up with Dac'tyl trisyl'lable ; 
Iam'bics march' from short to long' ; 
With a leap' and a bound' the swift An 'apests throng'." 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 193 

Id a long poem, the same foot is generally used 
throughout, but in short poems, a variety is often found, 
even in the same verse. 

Dactyls are not very common in English verse. Long- 
fellow's Evangeline is in dactyls. Hiawatha is in tro- 
chaic verse. 

Be careful in reading verse not to accent too strongly, 
and give the sing-song tone, and do not make a rhythm 
in reading prose. 

LESSON XLni. 

PUNCTUATION. 

§ 207. Punctuation treats of the points which are 
used in the division of written language, to develop the 
sense, and show the relations of words. 

The Period (.) is used at the end of a sentence, either 
simple or compound, which is not interrogative, nor 
exclamatory. 

It is used after any expression regarded as complete, 
as in titles, or headings of chapters, which are regarded 
as elliptical sentences. 

It is also used after abbreviations, and, in writing 
numbers, at the right of the unit's place ; as, Hon. S. A. 
Douglass, M. C. ; Wm. Morgan, Jr.; 5.055. 

§ 208. The Colon (:) is now seldom used. Its 
proper use is between sentences to show that they are 
not entirely distinct, and yet are but slightly connected. 
It is used principally before a long quotation, after the 
expression as follows, or something of a similar mean- 
ing; as, He addressed the assembly in the following 
terms : " Fellow citizens of Tennessee." 
i) 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is sometimes used after the address of a letter 
(p. IS) instead of the semi-colon. 

It is also used when a sentence is added to a previous 
sentence as an illustration, without a connecting word ; 
as, No writer can expect always to write his best : good 
Homer sometimes drowses. 

The Semi-colon (;) is used between sentences which 
are independent in meaning, and yet stand connected ; 
which are in similar relation to some other sentence, or 
have the same form, particularly when the sentences are 
divided by the comma; as, 

We must not take this for the invention of fancy ; the 
fact is confirmed by a dozen eye-witnesses. 

I have often wished that I could concentrate my mind 
upon one purpose ; that I could direct the energy of my 
life to one pursuit; that I could conquer my habit of 
dreaming about the future ; and could work in the pres- 
ent time as my only certain opportunity. 

A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope ; the 
orphan of St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the 
Republic ; in the name of Brutus, he grasped without 
shame, and wore without remorse, the diadem of the 
Caesars. 

§ 210. The Comma (,) is used to separate words, 
phrases, sentences and clauses which stand closely con- 
nected, and are in the same relation ; as, in this sentence, 
Words, phrases, sentences and clauses are all in the ob- 
ject relation to separate, and are separated by the 
comma. 

When only two terms are used, and a co-ordinate con- 
junction is expressed between them, or between the last 
two of a series, no comma is needed, as in the above, 
or as, He is wise and brave. They laughed and shouted. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 195 

If one of two similar terras has a modifier which 
stands after it which does not modify the other, a 
comma must be used between ; as, He came in great 
haste, and was greatly frightened. He works hard, and 
earns good wages. If an ordinary connective is omit- 
ted, a comma takes its place ; as, His life is dark, deso- 
late. When words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
a comma separates the pairs ; as, He may be prince or 
peasant, fool or philosopher, rich or poor, but he shall 
have a shelter. 

Nouns absolute by address are set off by commas ; 
as, " Romans, friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." 

An appositive standing after its noun, with any modi- 
fier except the article, is generally set off by the comma ; 
as, Franklin, the American philosopher. Rome, the 
mistress of the world. 

An abridged participial clause is set off by the comma ; 
as, Having found our friend, we set out for home. Alex- 
ander, having conquered the world, wept for more 
worlds to conquer. 

A long subject containing a clause as modifier is gen- 
erally separated from the predicate by a comma; as, 
Wellington, who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, was 
born in 1769. 

Adjuncts modifying the predicate are set off by the 
comma when they precede the subject. A short ad- 
junct of time is sometimes excepted. 

Ex. — In 1853, in the village of Barton, a singular 
phenomenon was observed. In winter we slide and 
skate. 

When a word is repeated for emphasis, a comma 
separates the repeated word from the preceding; as, 
Now, now is the time. Yes, yes. 

A modal adverb, adjunct, or clause, is generally sepa- 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rated by the comma; as, Certainly, I will do it with 
pleasure. Of course, this made trouble. If you wish, 
it can be moved. 

A careful study of the punctuation employed by good writers 
is recommended as the best guide for common use. Authorities 
differ widely, particularly in the rules for the use of the comma. 
Close connection in sense forbids any point. A long sentence 
does not require a point within it simply because it is long. 
Reading pauses are no sure guide. The sense alone determines. 

§ 211. The Interrogation Point (? ; the semi-colon 
inverted) is placed after every direct question. A direct 
question means one which requires an answer. If the 
question is quoted with the form of the verb changed, it 
is indirect, and does not require the interrogation point. 

Ex. He said, " Will you venture?" (Direct.) 

He asked me if I would venture. (Indirect.) 

The Exclamation Point (!) stands after the ex- 
clamatory sentence, and after most exclamations ; as, 
Alas ! what folly ! Pshaw ! how absurd ! 

The Apostrophe (') denotes the omission of a letter; 
as, e'er for ever. 

Quotation Points (" ") are used to inclose a passage 
taken from another author or speaker ; as, Solomon hath 
well said, " He that hateth suretyship is sure." 

Single quotation points are used when a quotation 
stands in a quotation ; as, 
" What haste hast thou? Ride softly ! take thy breath ! 

What bringst thou here ? He answered, ' War and 
death.' " 

The Hyphen (-) is used between the parts of a com- 
pound word ; as, ant-hill, red-hot, will-o'-the-wisp. 

It is used at the end of the line when a part of the 
word is carried over to the following line; as, paren- 
thesis. The syllable should never be divided. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 197 

It is also used when syllables are to be made distinct; 
as, re-elect, instead of reelect; lu-min-a-ry, when the 
design is to indicate to the eye the several syllables. 

The Diaeresis is used over a vowel to show that it is 
not in the same syllable as the preceding vowel; as, 
cooperate. Without the diaeresis, the word would be 
pronounced in three syllables. 

The Caret (A) is used in manuscript to denote the 
omission of some word which is inserted above. 

The Star or Asterisk (*), the Dagger (f ), the Double 
Dagger (J), and letters and figures, are used as marks 
of reference. 

The Dash ( — ) is used to denote a sudden interrup- 
ruption or transition of sense ; as, And thrice — wonder- 
ful to tell — the image leapt from the ground. Also to 
denote the omission of a word, or of a part of a word ; 
as, Mr. , of B n. 

Marks of Parenthesis or Curves are used to enclose 
explanations or remarks which are not a part of the 
sentence, and might be omitted without affecting the 
construction of the proposition ; as, How many (soldiers) 
are to fall to-night! Upon this, the weights (who had 
never been accused of light conduct) began to urge him 
forward. 

Dashes often take the place of curves ; as, The in- 
direct object in many languages — Latin, for example — 
is indicated by a special case, or ending, called the 
Dative. 

The Ulakroii (~) placed over a vowel denotes its long 
sound ; as, ago. 

The Breve (") placed over a vowel denotes its short 
sound ; as, level. 



APPENDIX. 



USE OF CAPITALS. 



§ 212. 1. Capital letters should be used at the be- 
ginning of each independent sentence. 

2. At the beginning of each proper noun and adjec- 
tive. Common nouns personified are included, and all 
appellations of the Deity, whether noun or adjective. 

3. At the beginning of each noun, adjective or verb 
in a title ; as of a book, or of a society. 

4. Every line in poetry should commence with a 
capital. 

5. The pronoun I and the exclamation are always 
in capitals. 

6. A direct quotation commences with a capital. 

7. Personal pronouns of the second and third persons 
referring to the Almighty are sometimes commenced 
with a capital. This usage is gaining favor, but is not 
universal. 

8. Capitals are sometimes used at the beginning of an 
emphatic word, instead of putting the whole word into 
italics. 

9. Headings of chapters, running titles of books, and 
the principal divisions of books are printed wholly in 
capitals. In advertisements, posters and other matter 
designed to attract special attention, capitals are freely 
used. 



200 ENGLISH GEAHMAE. 

EULES FOE SPELLING. 

§ 213. I. Final f, 1, and § are doubled in monosyl- 
lables when preceded by a vowel ; as, stiff, ball, pass. 
Except if, clef, of, as, gas, has, his, is, pus, this, thus, 
us, was, yes, and the third singular of verbs which end 
in silent e. 

II. Other final consonants remain single. Except 
ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, butt, buzz, fuzz. 

III. A, li, i, j, It, q, u, v, w, x and y are never 
doubled. Q is always followed by u. 

IV. Monosyllables and words accented on the final 
syllable, which end in a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, double tlie final con§osiaiit on receiv- 
ing an ending which commences with a vowel; as, bud- 
ding, rubbed, written, committee. 

The doubled consonant indicates the short sound of 
the preceding vowel. Thus hopping is distinguished 
from hoping by the doubled consonant. 

Usage varies in regard to words ending in el, and a 
few others. Webster follows the above rule. Wor- 
cester doubles the 1 ; as in traveller. 

V. Final e mute is dropped before an ending which 
commences with a vowel ; as, forc(e)ible. Except after 
c and g to preserve the soft sound, singeing and dyeing 
to distinguish them from singing and dying, and words 
ending in ee and oe ; as, agreeable, shoeing. 

VI. E mute final is retained before an ending which 
begins with a consonant ; as, careful. Except duly, 
truly, awful, wholly, judgment, abridgment, acknowl- 
edgment. 

VII. Final y preceded by a consonant becomes i on 
receiving an ending which commences with any letter 
except i ; as, merriment, pitiless, pitying. 



APPENDIX. 201 

VIIL Final y preceded by a vowel remains un- 
changed before an ending, as; chimneys, payment. 
Except laid, paid, said, staid, daily, gaily (or gayly). 

IX. Compounds are spelled like their primitives, un- 
less three letters of the same name come together. 
When this occurs, one letter is dropped, or a hyphen is 
employed between ; as, Moss-shire, fully, instead of 
full-ly. 

Compounds of all and full not written with a hyphen 
drop one 1; us, fulfill, always. 

X. When e and i are a diphthong with the sound of 
c long, at the beginning of a word, or after c or §, e 
comes first ; otherwise, i comes first ; as, either, seize, 
deceive, grief, niece, relieve. Except neither, siege, finan- 
cier, leisure. 

When e and i in a diphthong have any sound other 
than that of e long, e comes first; as, heifer, iceight, 
sleight. Except sieve. 

The above rules apply only to English words, and do 
not include proper names. It is recommended to fix 
each rule by special spelling lessons, containing a great 
many examples. 

DERIVATION OF SURNAMES. 

§ 214, The word Surname means an additional 
name, and is now used to denote the name of the family 
added to the name of the individual. In Bible times, 
surnames were unfrequent. Many nations at present 
make little use of them. 

Besides their use in distinguishing persons, surnames 
are of interest as giving important facts in the history 
and derivation of words. 

Most surnames can be referred to the following classes : 
0* 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Patronymics ; or names derived from the name 
of a father, or ancestor. English patronymics end in 
son, and every familiar first name or nick-name has its 
corresponding patronymic. 

Ex. — Adamson, Davidson, Johnson, Peterson, Jackson, 
Wilson = Williamson, Dickson or Dixon = Richardson, 
Anderson = Andrew's son. 

Fitz, a corruption of the French fils=son, is used as a 
prefix in patronymics; as, Fitz James, Fitz Maurice. 

Scotch patronymics have the prefix Mac or Mc; as, 
McClellan, Macgregor. The Irish prefix is O, said to 
mean grandson. The Welsh prefix the preposition ap, 
meaning of, to the name of the father, and ap, contract- 
ing with the following name, gives us several patronym- 
ics commencing with P ; as, Powell, for ap Howell ; 
Price, for ap Rice. 

2. §nrname§ of Occupation. Many of these are 
derived from verbs, and end in er. 

Ex. — Baker, Brewer, Cooper, Fowler, Crocker or Pot- 
ter, Miller, Jenner (thak is, Joiner), Mason, Smith (fro 
smite) and its compounds. 

Some names of this class end in man; as, Seaman, 
Waterman. 

Feminine surnames of occupation were formed in ster; 
as, Baxter=Bakester, Brewster, Spinster, and Webster, 
the feminine of Webber= Weaver. 

Obsolete professions give us such names as Arrow- 
smith = Fletcher, Bowyer, Lorimer (bridle-maker), Lati- 
mer (Latiner, that is, interpreter; one who can talk 
Latin.) 

3. Ofilcial Titles. Duke, Earl, Knight, Squires, 
Bishop, Dean, Parsons, Clark == Clerk, Sexton— Saxton, 
Priest, Bailey=Bailiff, Pope. Some of these names, 
such as King and Pope, may have been given as nick- 
names. 



APPENDIX. 203 

4. §urname§ of Locality, derived from place of 
residence. Hardly a village in England or Normandy 
which has not originated some surname. Besides these, 
there are names of localities of every kind. Two men 
of the same occupation and first name, would readily be 
distinguished as James from the hill, and James from 
the dale, naturally becoming James Hill and James 
Dale. 

Ex. — Meadows, Ford, Park, Bridge=Briggs, Banks, 
Field and Wood, with their numerous compounds ; 
Towner, Weller, Wellman. 

5. Names derived from Personal Qualities, or 
Peculiarities. Ex. Black, Brown, White, Little, Long, 
Snell (quick), Armstrong, Hardy, Doolittle, Toogood, 
Roy, Reed and Ross = Red. 

6. National Names. English, England, French, 
Irish, Ireland, Scott, Dane or Denis, Switzer, German, 
Dutcher, Wales = Wallis = Walsh = Welch, Flanders, 
Gael or Gale. 

7. Names of Emblems, derived from coats of arms. 
Most of the animals familiar to our ancestors have 

given us surnames; as, of quadrupeds, we have Buck, 
Doe, Hind, Hart, Stagg, Lyon, Lamb, Kidd, Hogg, 
Wolfe. Of birds, Heron, Hawk, Robin, Jay, Pigeon, 
Nightingale, Wren. Of fishes, Parr, Salmon, Chubb, 
Herring. 

From other familiar objects likely to be used as 
emblems, we have Sun, Moon, Starr, Rock, Rose, Oakes, 
Swords, Spear. 

There are other sources, but the above are the princi- 
pal. When the pupils are of different nationalities, it is 
often interesting to trace the corresponding names 
through different languages. Thus, Schneider = Taylor, 
Miilier=Milier, Ziegler= Tyler, McGo wan = Carpenter. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYNONYMS. 

§ 215. A Synonym is a word equivalent in mean- 
ing to some other word. 

Words precisely equivalent are called exact synonyms. 
These are uncommon in any language. When a word 
is once agreed upon as the sign of an idea, another word 
is not needed to express the same idea. Still, in taking 
into our language words from different sources, we have 
a few exact synonyms. Hypothesis from the Greek, 
and supposition from the Latin language are examples. 
But in poetry for rhyme and for meter, and in all writing 
for variety of expression, it is convenient to have terms 
of different sound, different accent, and of different 
length. Thus, falchion, brand, blade, glaive, saber, 
scimetar, are synonyms of svwrd; yet these names are 
not exactly equivalent. 

A falchion is a crooked sword (falx= sickle), a saber 
is a horseman's sword, curved at the point, a blade is a 
part put for the whole, etc. 

Much of the ease and grace of composition depends 
upon the writer's ability to express an idea in' terms 
which are exact, and yet not too common-place. Even 
a familiar truth may seem fresh and interesting when 
expressed in better words than usual. It is excellent 
practice to attempt to reproduce the ideas of a good 
writer in our own words. 

The most familiar ideas have usually the greatest 
forms of expression. Tnus the verb see has the follow- 
ing approximate synonyms : 

Look, view, survey, eye, behold, descry, espy, gaze, 
stare, watch, scan, scrutinize. There are others which 
the pupil will do well to search out and compare. 

The above might be separated first into transitive and 



APPENDIX. 205 

intransitive, those which take a direct object, and those 
which take an adjunct complement. Look, gaze and 
stare require the preposition at to follow them. 

Look mean properly to direct the sight. One may 
look, but not see. 

Gaze means a prolonged steady look. Its opposite is 
glance, which implies a brief look. 

Stare, like gaze, implies a long look, with eyes wide 
open, expressing astonishment or rudeness. Its Ger- 
man equivalent is to make great eyes. 

View is very nearly the same as see. It comes from 
the French. It generally implies a distinct and some- 
what prolonged vision. 

Survey means overlook ; look from above upon any 
thing, and see all its parts. 

Eye means to examine closely. It is emphatic by the 
figure of Metonymy. 

Behold means literally to hold upon. It expresses 
steady, continued looking, like gaze. 

Descry means to see something which had been in- 
visible because of distance. 

Espy or spy means to see something which had been 
concealed. 

Watch is used chiefly of bodies which are in motion. 
It has the same root as wake, and implies roused and 
close attention. 

Scan and scrutinize mean to observe carefully and 
critically. 

Approximate synonyms of round are circular, annu- 
lar, cylindrical, curvilinear, spherical, globular, ellipti- 
cal, oval. Let the pupil learn the exact meaning of 
each. 

Take the following list of words : 

Speak, say, utter, talk, tell, announce, declare, affirm, 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

assert, express, discourse, harangue. Give the precise 
meaning of each, add as many synonyms as possible, 
and write sentences which contain the several verbs 
used correctly. Also select sentences from standard 
authors, illustrating the proper use. Newspaper author- 
ity is often of no value. 

The exact meaning of words must generally be sought 
for in Unabridged Dictionaries, which should be in 
every school room. 

Many words find their synonyms in phrases, or in 
clauses, and these admit of endless variety. Thus a 
historian may be a writer of history, a, historical writer, 
one who writes history, the author of a history. 

Pupils may with profit practice the changing of words 
as they read, to secure a ready use of synonyms. It is 
not to be supposed that their changes will always im- 
prove upon the author's words, but they may improve 
their own style by the exercise. 

A passage from Cicero is given below, and the same 
passage changed by the substitution of synonyms. 

" Had I not, by deeply pondering the precejDts of 
philosophy, and the lessons of the historian and the 
poet, imbued ray mind with an early and an intimate 
conviction that nothing in life is worthy of strenuous 
pursuit but honor and renown," etc. 

"Had I not, by careful meditation upon the teachings 
of philosophers, and the instructions of authors of his- 
tory and poetry, early persuaded my reason to the full 
belief that no object in existence is deserving of vigor- 
ous endeavor, unless it be glory or fame," etc. 

Similar exercises carefully prepared and sharply criti- 
cized by the class, and by the teacher, are very useful. 



APPENDIX. 207 

EXERCISE IN SYNONYMS. 

Difference between love and like? Between idle and 
lazy? Between plunge and dive? between generous 
and liberal? Between education and learning? Be- 
tween spot and blemish? Between bring and fetch? 
Bear and carry? Understand and comprehend ? Tomb 
and grave ? Choose and prefer ? Calamity and catas- 
trophe ? Civil and polite ? Womanly and womanish ? 
Conscientious and scrupulous? Frugal and economical? 
Hope and expect? Courage, bravery, fortitude, hero- 
ism ? Hinder and ^eter , ? 



INDEX. 



(The numbers refer to the page.) 



Abstract nouns, 63, 95. 

endings, 189. 
Accent defined, 190. 

of compounds, 91. 
Adjectives, 30, 92, 131. 

classes of, 33, 131. 

comparison, 51, 133. 

modification, 154. 
Adjuncts, 140. 
Adverbs, 92, 136. 

relations of, 138. 

derived from pronouns, 137. 
Alphabet, 86. 
Allegory, 183. 
Alliteration, 183 
An or A, 135. 
Analysis, 25, 149. 

models, 67-70, 176-179. 
Anapest, 192. 
Antecedent, 43, 124. 
Aphreresis, 180. 
Apocope, 181. 
Apostrophe, use of, 196. 

figure of, 184. 
Apposition, 149. 
Archaism, 180. 
Articles, 145. 

As, relative pronoun, 127. 
Auxiliaries, 112. 

Base of an adjunct, 140. 
Be, forms of, 111. 

Subjunctive forms, 117. 

Capitals, rules for, 199. 
Cardinal numerals, 132. 
Case defined, 101. 
Clause defined, 37. 
kinds of, 163. 



Collective nouns, 95. 
Colon, 193. 
Comma, 194. 
Comparison of adjectives, 61 

of adverbs, 136. 
Complement of a verb, 109. 
Compound words, 70. 

accent of, 91, 190. 
Conjugation, 57, 104. 
Conjunctions, 49, 94. 

list of, 143. 

classes of, 143. 

correlative, 144. 
Consonants, 87. 

sonant and non-sonant, 8' 
Construction, 165. 

Dactyl, 192. 
Dash, 192. 

Declarative sentences, 64. 
Declension of nouns, 55. 

of pronouns, 125. 
Demonstratives, 130. 
Derivation, 90. 

of verbs, 122. 

of surnames, 201. 
Diaeresis, 181. 
Diminutives, 62, 95. 
Diphthongs, 87. 
Distributives, 130. 

Each other, one another, 130. 
Elements of the sentence, 23. 
Ellipsis, 66, 182. 
Emphasis defined. 190. 
Emphatic form of verbs, 114. 
Enallage, 182. 
Errors corrected, 79-81. 
Etymology, 90. 



210 



Euphony, 89. 
Exclamations, 50, 145. 
Exclamatory sentences, 46. 
Expletives, 139. 

Feminine endings, 100. 
Figures of speech, 180. 

plural of, 98. 
Foot defined, 191. 
French prefixes, 171. 

Gender, 99. 
Gerund, 104, 172. 
Grammar defined, 85. 
Greek prefixes, 188. 

Hyperbaton, 183. 
Hyperbole, 184. 
Hyphen, 196. 

Iambus, 192. 

Imperative sentences, 64. 
Imperfect participle, 104, 172. 
Infinitive, 61. 103. 

syntax of, 169. 

uses of, 170. 

in abridged clauses, 160. 
Inflection, 52, 93. 
Interrogation point, 196. 
Interrogative sentences. 54. 

pronouns, 45, 127. 
Irony, 184. 
Irregular verbs, 107. 
It, special uses of, 126. 

Labials, 88. 
Language defined, 84. 
Latin prefixes 186. 
Letter writing, 71. 

suffixes, 189. 

date of, 72. 

address, 73. 

conclusion, 74. 

direction, 75. 

models of, 76, 78. 
Letters defined, 86. 

classified, 87, 88. 
Liquids, 88. 

Metaphor, 183. 



Metonymy, 184. 
Methinks, 119, 158. 
Modal adverbs, 139. 
Modify defined, 29. 
Modifiers, 29, 147. 

of nouns, 149. 

of pronouns, 152. 

of adjectives, 152. 

of verbs, 156. 
Mode, subjunctive, 117, 164. 
Multiplicatives, 132. 

Nominative, 101. 
Nouns defined, 27, 92. 

classes of, 95. 

inflection of, 102. 

plural, 52, 97. 

possessive, 54, 102. 

modification of, 149. 

construction of, 165. 
Number, 96. 

Object defined, 93. 

indirect, 157. 
Object clauses, abridged, 160 
Obsolete words, 93. 
Onomatopoeia, 155. 
Ordinal numerals, 132. 
Orthography, 86. 

rules of, 200. 

Paradigm, 102. 
Paragoge, 181. 
Parenthesis, 197. 
Parsing, 149. 
Participles, 59, 103. 

in abridged clauses, 164 

uses of, 171, 173. 
Parts of speech, 26, 92. 
Passive voice, 115, 159. 
Period, 193. 
Person defined, 43. 
Personal pronouns, 43, 124. 

compound, 44, 126. 

declension of, 125. 
Personification, 184. 
Phonic spelling, 89. 
Phrase defined, 37. 
Pleonasm, 182. 
Plural, formation of, 53. 



211 



Poetry defined, 191. 
Positive degree, 61, 133. 
Possessions, 54, 102. 
Predicate, 23, 146. 
Prefixes, Anglo-Saxon, 185. 

Latin, 186. 

Greek, 188. 

French, 188. 
Prepositions, 46, 140. 

list of, 47, 140. 

compounded with verb, 141. 
Primitive words, 52, 90. 
Progressive form of verbs, 114. 
Pronominal adjectives, 130. 
Pronouns, 42, 92, 124. 

classes of, 124. 

declension, 125- 

relative, 44, 127. 

interrogative, 45, 127. 

reciprocal, 131. 
Proposition, 147. 
Prosody, 190. 
Punctuation, 193. 

Quotation points, 197. 

Redundant verbs, 122. 
Relative pronouns, 44, 127. 
Root of a word, 91. 
Rhyme, 171. 
Rhythm, 191. 
Rule defined, 85. 
Rules of spelling, 200. 
for capitals, 199. 

Semi-colon, 194. 
Sentence defined, 23, 146. 

classes of, 64, 147. 

analysis of, 25. 

for analysis, 70. 

analyzed, 67, 176. 
Simile, 183. 
Spelling defined, 89. 

rules of, 200. 
Spondee, 181. 
Strong conjugation, 107. 



Subject, 23, 146. 
Subjunctive mode, 117. 
Subsequent, 140. 
Substantive, 27. 
Sufiixes, English, 188. 

Latin and French, 189. 
Superlative degree, 133. 
Surnames, derivation of, 201 
Syllables, 89. 
Syllepsis, 182. 
Syncope, 181. 
Synecdoche, 184. 
Synonyms, 204. 
Syntax, 145. 

Tense, 58, 105. 

That, when preferred 

as relative, 153. 
Title, when pluralized, 99. 
Tmesis, 181. 
Transitive verbs, 108. 
Transposition, 183. 

examples of, 175. 
Trochee, 192. 
Tropes, 197. 

Verbs, 27, 103. 

auxiliary, 112. 

causative sense, 161 

conjugation, 104. 

defective, 111, 118. 

derivation, 122. 

emphatic form, 114. 

irregular, 111. 

lists of strong, 119. 

principal parts, 108. 

progressive form, 114. 

progressive passive, 116. 

redundant, 122. 

voice, 115. 
Verse, 191. 
Vowels, 87. 
What, use of, 128. 
Words, 85. 
Weak conjugation, 107. 



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Readers. Size, 20 x 24 inches. 
Edwards & Warren's Analytical Speller. 108 pages, 16mo. 



Colbert's Astronomy without a Telescope. 104 pp.. with 

Maps, Quarto. 

Boltwood's English Grammar. 216 pp., lGmo. 
Howland's English Grammar. SO pp., 16mo. 

SCHOOL REGISTERS. 

Sherwood's Universal Daily Register of Attendance, Scholarship 
and Deportment. 

SHERWOOD'S SERIES OF SPELLERS. 

CONSISTING OF 

Sherwood's Writing Speller. 
Sherwood'i Speller and Pronounc*r. 
Sherwood's Speller and Definer. 



SHERWOOD'S SERIES OF OUTLIKE MAPS, 

EDITED BY A. M. SOW. 

This Series consists of eight maps, beautifully drawn, brilliantly 
colored, and admirably adapted to Schools of every grade. A com- 
plete key accompanies each set of Maps. 

GEO. «fc O. W. SHERWOOD, 
CHICAGO. 



